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Topic 6 (6.6 Hormones, homeostasis, reproduction (Menstrual cycle:…

- - - - α cells secrete glucagon
        
        increase glucose concentration
    - - β cells secrete insulin
        
        increase glucose concentration
    - - Type Ⅱ
        
        Treatment: weight loss; avoid food with high sugar content
        
        Cause: inability to process or respond to insulin because of a deficiency of insulin receptors
      - Type Ⅰ
        
        Cause: inability to produce sufficient insulin
        
        Treatment: inject insulin
  - - - Obesity and the lack of leptin concentration in mice
      - obesity and high leptin concentration in humans
        
        target cells develop leptin resistance; appetite not inhibited
  - - - Cause: the circadian rhythms not suitable for the new destination
      - Use of melatonin to alleviate jet lag and promote sleep
  - - - A gene on the Y chromosome causes embryonic gonads to develop as testes
      - Hormone: testosterone
        
        Causes pre-natal development of male genitalia and both sperm production and development of male secondary sexual characteristics during puberty.
    - - Hormones: Estrogen and progesterone
        
        cause pre-natal development of female reproductive organs and female secondary sexual characteristics during puberty.
  - - - testis
      - sperm duct
      - epididymis
      - penis
      - seminal vesicle and prostate gland
      - urethra
    - - uterus
      - cervix
      - oviduct
      - vagina
      - ovary
      - vulva
  - - - ESTROGEN increases the thickness of uterus lining
      - follicle breaks open; LH stimulate ovulation
      - FSH stimulates follicle development in the ovary; FSH stimulate ESTROGEN escretion
    - - PROGESTERONE maintains the thickness of endometrium and inhibit the production of FH&LSH
      - LH forms the corpus luteum from the wall of the follicle
    - - egg is released into the oviduct
    - - lining breaks down
- - - - Proteins and other molecules on the surface of pathogens are recognized as foreign by the body and they stimulate a specific immune response. Any chemical that stimulates an immune response is referred to as an antigen. Antibodies is the specific immune response.
      - Antibodies are produced by types of white blood cell called lymphocytes.
        
        Each lymphocyte produces just one type of antibody, but our bodies can produce a vast array of different antibodies. This is because we have small numbers of lymphocytes for producing each of the many types of antibody. There are therefore too few lymphocytes initially to produce enough antibodies to control a pathogen that has not previously infected the body.
      - Antibodies are large proteins that have two functional regions: a hyper-variable region that binds to a specific antigen and another region that held the body to fight the pathogen in one of a number of ways
        
        making a pathogen more recognizable to phagocytes so they are more readily engulfed
        
        preventing viruses from docking to host cells so that they cannot enter the cells
    - - Transfusion of infected blood, or blood products such as Factor VIII
      - Sharing of hypodermic needles by intravenous drug users.
      - Sexual intercourse, during which abrasions to the mucous membranes of the penis and vagina can cause minor bleeding
  - - - Many antibacterial antibiotics were discovered in saprotrophic fungi. These fungi compete with saprotrophic bacteria for the dead organic matter on which they both feed. By secreting antibacterial antibiotics, saprotrophic fungi inhibit the growth of their bacterial competitors
        
        Penicillin: Florey and Chain's experiments to test penicillin on bacterial infections in mice.
  - - - In patients with coronary heart disease, blood clots sometimes form in the coronary arteries. These arteries branch off from the aorta close to the semilunar valve. They carry blood to the wall of the heart, supplying the oxygen and glucose needed by cardiac muscle fibers for cell respiration. The medical name for a blood clot is a thrombus. Coronary thrombosis is the formation of blood clots in the coronary arteries.
      - There are some well-known factors that are correlated with an increased risk of coronary thrombosis and hear attacks:
        
        high blood pressure
        
        diabetes
        
        high blood cholesterol concentration
        
        obesity
        
        smoking
        
        lack of exercise
    - - When the skin is cut, blood vessels in it are severed and start to bleed. The blood emerging from a cut changes from being a liquid to a semi-solid gel. It seals the wound. Clots prevent entry of pathogens until new tissue has grown to heal
  - - - Antibiotic resistance is an avoidable problem
        
        Hospital staff maintaining high standards of hygiene to prevent cross-infection
        
        Farmers not using antibiotics in animal feeds to stimulate growth
        
        Patients completing courses of antibiotics to eliminate infections completely
        
        Pharmaceutical companies developing new types of antibiotic- no new types have been introduced since the 1980s.
        
        Doctors prescribing antibiotics only for serious bacterial infections
  - - - Microbes that cause disease are called pathogens. The primary defense of the body against pathogens is the skin. Sebaceous glands are associated with hard follicles and they secrete a chemical called sebum, which maintains skin moisture and slightly lowers skin pH. The lower pH inhibits the growth of bacteria and fungi.
      - Mucous membranes are a thinner and softer type of skin that is found in areas such as the nasal passages and other airways, the head of the penis and foreskin and the vagina. The Mucus that these areas of skin secrete is a sticky solution of glycoproteins
- - - - Ex. hydrophobic nutrients such as fatty acids and monoglycerides.
    - - Ex. hydrophilic nutrients such as fructose.
    - - Ex. mineral ions such as sodium, calcium and iron
    - - Ex. triglycerides and cholesterol in lipoprotein particles.
  - - - Mouth:Chewing
      - Stomach: Churning
    - - Stomach Acids
      - Bile
      - Carbohydrates
      - Proteins
      - Lipids
      - Nucleic Acids
      - Enzyme
    - - mouth (ingestion and chewing)
      - esophagus (swallowing)
      - liver (secretes bile)
      - stomach (killing pathogens in food and protein digestion)
      - gall bladder (stores bile)
      - pancreas (secretes digestive enzymes)
      - small intestine (digestion and absorption)
      - large intestine (absorption of water)
      - anus
        (egestion of feces)
  - - - villi
        
        Structure of a villus
        
        epithelium
        
        layer of microvilli
        on surface of epithelium
        
        blood capillary
        
        lacteal(a branch of the lymphatic system)
        
        goblet cells (secrete mucus)
      - longitudinal muscle layer circular muscle layer
      - submucosa
      - mucosa
    - - peristalsis: Waves of muscle contraction
        
        lipids(fats and oils)---------lipase------ fatty acids + glycerol
        starch-------amylase--------maltose
        polypeptides -------------endopeptidase----------- shorter peptides
      - DIGESTION OF STARCH
        
        two types of molecule in starch: amylose and
        amylopectin.
        
        Dextrins: Fragments of the amylopectin molecule containing a 1,6 bond that amylase cannot digest
        
        Digestion of starch is completed by enzymes in the membranes of microvilli on villus epithelium cells: maltase and dextrinase digest maltose and dextrins into glucose.