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Higher Education and Teacher Education in the U.S. :pen: (Chapter 5…

- - - - Samuel Read Hall's "Lectures to School-Masters on Teaching" was published in 1833 and discussed:
        -common problems
        -school building location and construction
        -teachers' character
        -classroom management
        -motivation
        -teaching methods
        (Gutek, 203, p. 207).
      - Early teacher education programs emerged during this era in the form of academies and Teachers' Institutes (which were an early form of professional development) (Gutek, 2013, pp. 208–209).
      - By the end of the 19th century, there were more female than male elementary teachers due to the growth of common schools. Catharine Beecher established schools for female teacher education and also laid out a plan ("An Essay on the Education of Female Teachers") for a national corps of female teachers due to a need for teachers in the western U.S. (Gutek, 2013, pp. 209–211).
      - Normal Schools (1860–1920)
        
        Education as a Developing Profession
        
        The Progressive Movement (1900–1950)
        
        The Progressive Movement marked a focus in teacher education based on students' backgrounds, experiences, and interests (Gutek, 2013, pp. 222–223).
        
        Francis Parker emphasized the role of the teacher as a facilitator, teaching the "whole child," and transitioning the skills of reading, writing, speaking, and spelling into the ELA content area (Gutek, 2013, pp. 222–223).
        
        Marietta Johnson contributed thoughts on developmentally-centered teaching during the Progressive era (Gutek, 2013, p. 223).
        
        William Kilpatrick designed the "project method" of teacher education during this time period, which focused on helping teachers be facilitators of open-ended, research-based, student-centered problem-solving for learning (Gutek, 2013, p. 224).
        
        By the mid 20th century, teacher education programs tended to be centered on certification/licensing requirements, with a focus on a specific content area for secondary teachers. Programs included gen. ed. courses, content courses, teaching courses, and field experiences (Gutek, 2013, 224–225).
        
        In the 1960s, teacher education programs added educational technology courses due to the rise in ed. tech. use with the prevalence of TVs. From the 1970s on, more focus was placed on inclusive and eventually, multicultural, education (Gutek, 2013, p. 226).
        
        In the 1880s and 1890s, a push for professionalism led to an improvement in teacher ed. programs lead by Andrew Draper. One improvement was the origination of teacher preparation based on educational theory, during this time the theories of Johann Herbart (Gutek, 2013, pp. 219–221).
        
        From 1873 on, normal schools were transitioned into departments of universities offering a 4 year teaching degree (Gutek, 2013, p. 221).
        
        At first, programs at normal schools varied in length (usually 2 years), curriculum, amount of common school required to attend, and type of student. In 1886, the Dept. of Normal Schools recommended teacher certification, a focus on teacher education, and standardization (Gutek, 2013, p. 218).
        
        Normal schools' curriculum often included teaching practice and observation as well as content knowledge and teaching methods (Gutek, 2013, p. 212).
        
        Originating with James Carter and Horace Mann, normal schools began as an effort to educate common school teachers (Gutek, 2013, p. 212).
- - - - Land-Grant Institutions
        
        The Modern University
        
        The Expansion Following WWI
        
        WWI veterans returning and pursuing higher ed. spurred more diversity in all aspects of American higher ed. The GI bill made college more affordable for the American veteran (Gutek, 2013, pp. 180–182).
        
        Junior/Community Colleges
        
        A demand for vocational and close-to-home education between 1894 and 1950 lead to the development and growth of junior/community colleges, which provided 2-year degrees (Gutek, 2013, pp. 182–185).
        
        Activism
        
        From the mid 1960s to the early 1970s, activism on college campuses addressed war, discrimination/Civil Rights, poverty, and university issues (Gutek, 2013, p. 187).
        
        Due to "high inflation" in the early 1970s and a recession in the late 1970s" activism transitioned from social to economic issues and eventually declined (Gutek, 2013, p. 189).
        
        Higher Ed. in the 21st Century
        
        U.S. higher education in the 21st century offers a vast amount of options for a college education, but higher costs place "a tremendous burden on middle- and lower-income families" (Gutek, 2013, p. 189).
        
        The modern university was inspired by the German research model and Harvard president, Charles Eliot's, push for specialization, higher standards, and efficiency (Gutek, 2013, pp. 176–178).
        
        This era was marked by the establishment of state universities through federal land grants such as the Ohio Enabling Act as well as a movement to agricultural, industrial and engineering programs (The Yale Report of 1828 and the Morrill Act in 1857) (Gutek, 2013, pp. 173–175).
      - In the early national era, higher ed. institutions began to move away from private, religious control and towards public/federal funding (Gutek, 2013, p. 170).
      - This era was also when "seminaries" devoted to higher ed. for women arose (i.e. Troy Seminary, est. by Emma Willard in 1821 in Troy, NY) (Gutek, 2013, p. 171).
      - Higher ed. institutions for African-Americans were also established during this time period (i.e. Fisk University, est. in Nashville, TN in 1866) (Gutek, 2013, p. 172).