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How can Napoleon's military successes be explained? (Key events…
How can Napoleon's military successes be explained?
Methods
Personality
Propaganda: immortalised victories
Often alongside troops "one of them"
Arrogance & Power Hungry
"Magnetic Personality" - a way with his troops that ensured they didn't want to fail him
Travelled with troops and appeared to share their sugaring
Visited men before battles, delivered daily bulletin
Awarded many medals - created Legion of Honour (encourages acts of valour)
Well paid and fed
Compared to allied generals: young, willing, approachable vs. old, cautious, and aloof
High morale
Often a result of successes and victories
Promises of "la Gloire" (victory)
Weapons
Not largely superior
Although artillery was lighter
Refused technological innovation (semaphore telegraph, underwater warships, explosive rockets, ground balloon, sharp knife on musket, new training methods)
Tactics
Living off land
Not reliant on supplies which increased mobility and limited the weakness of armies
Franklin Ford - "his debt to the revolution" Pursuing retreating armies
Varied tactics: kept enemies guessing
Organisation
Huge French levees
Ordre mixte
Combined ordre mince (thin line) and ordre profond (thick line)
Organisation partly based on 1770's formations
Detailed planning and quick speed to ensure best positions in battles
Dichotomy (man of peace/starting wars)
Similar to his style of rule
Size and quality of his military
Unified: fighting for common cause
Highly trained
65,000 at Austerlitz
190,000 at Leipzig
A. Meynier (military historian) - 1800-15 2 million frenchmen enrolled; yet his enemies could match his numbers
Lack of enthusiasm of enemies to raise raw recruits until 1813-5 - fear of ill discipline, lack of cooperation from allies (Napoleon exploits)
Generals gained promotions off their own merit and were loyal
Amalgame: mixed veterans with new soldiers to teach recruits
Government
First Consul also Commander in Chief
Maximised involvement in army affairs
Maximised power potential
This only came into question in the War of the 6th Coalition: government considered accepting Austria's proposal of returning to 1792 borders
Centralised control
No conflict of civil or military interests
Ministry of War
Expanded and divided into two sections for army and administration
Increased effectiveness
Conditions
Inability of other armies
Often reliant on mercinaries
Lacked enthusiasm
Not unified
Spoke different languages
Differences between countries (reasons for fighting GB vs Austria)
Soldiers
Battle of Austerlitz: Russian and Austrian troops failed to cooperate (Napoleon then exploited their divisions)
Often unable to deal with unpredictable strategies of warfare
Slow to adapt tactics (more traditional)
Other generals were effective
Battle of Austerlitz saved by successful generals
Murat, Ney, and Davout
Inherited an army that was superior to other European nations
Ancien Regime effectiveness
Conscription from the Terror
Living off the Land was adopted from army drill book 1791
Military engineers also inherited (which were in short supply among enemies)
Historiography
Ford (on tactics)
"His debt to the revolution" was his relentless pursuit of the retreating enemy, resulting in carnage
O. Connelly
Criticised Napoleon's reputation as a general, many victories close, says he was often lucky
Key events
Russian Campaign 1812
"Napoleon walked too far"
Main failure
Italian Campaign 1796
Hundred Days 1815
Despite lacking numbers initially, was able to gather support due to the remaining loyalty of former soldiers
Battle of Marengo 1800
Battle of Austerlitz 1805
Peace treaties
Treaty of Amiens 1802
War of the Coalitions
Summary points
Napoleon was a highly successful military general up to 1808
Not entirely dependent on his own skill
Combination of weakness of enemies and the dynamic tactics he employed
Able to utilise their enemies to his advantage
Some of his tactics were taken from the best of the ancien regime
Failures after 1808 partly due to his own mistakes
Could be argued he was only really legendary when on the defensive
Superior Tactics until 1813-5
Manoeuvred the enemy into a weak position --> outnumbered charges with troops --> wore it down with mass artillery, bayonets, and cavalry --> pursued it relentlessly
Failures
Methods
Although use of foreign armies in the Russian Campaign limited this unity and loyalty: almost reverted to the weaknesses of his enemies
Only half of 650,000 troops were French
Napoleon had "walked too far"
Hesitated uncharacteristically in the Battle of Sorondino: it was his birthday (but resulted in battle)
Risks that previously had paid off (Marengo, Austerlitz) not always successful
Did not embrace technological advancement
Rejected submarines and explosive rockets
Decline in quality and size of French army: forced Napoleon to recruit from satellite states
Conditions
Also resulted in his downfall
Battle of Leipzig (1813): Russians adopted similar tactics and Napoleon was unable to respond effectively
Although this was also based on the terrain
Quality of troops and tactics of enemies gradually improved
Ignorance of weather and Climate (Egypt mud 1806), Russia (1812)
Losing support within France
Malet Affair: employing his son was not discussed (limits to his empire)
Economic conditions: Continental System hurt France's economy and reduced industrial base
Conclusion(s)
Napoleon's generalship WAS important - but not the be all end all
Despite his lack of innovation with technology, his strategies mostly made up for it (until enemies began taking his ideas)
Losses due to failure to stop pursuing and consolidate gains while enemies strength grew
Never prepared to negotiate or compromise - the confidence and arrogance that helped with military successes proved to be his downfall