How can Napoleon's military successes be explained?
Methods
Conditions
Historiography
Inability of other armies
Personality
Weapons
Tactics
Dichotomy (man of peace/starting wars)
Key events
Russian Campaign 1812
Italian Campaign 1796
Hundred Days 1815
Battle of Marengo 1800
Battle of Austerlitz 1805
Peace treaties
Treaty of Amiens 1802
Summary points
Napoleon was a highly successful military general up to 1808
Failures after 1808 partly due to his own mistakes
"Napoleon walked too far"
Main failure
Size and quality of his military
Propaganda: immortalised victories
Living off land
Franklin Ford - "his debt to the revolution" Pursuing retreating armies
Often alongside troops "one of them"
Often reliant on mercinaries
Not unified
Not largely superior
Although artillery was lighter
War of the Coalitions
Arrogance & Power Hungry
Similar to his style of rule
Not entirely dependent on his own skill
Combination of weakness of enemies and the dynamic tactics he employed
Unified: fighting for common cause
Highly trained
65,000 at Austerlitz
Varied tactics: kept enemies guessing
190,000 at Leipzig
A. Meynier (military historian) - 1800-15 2 million frenchmen enrolled; yet his enemies could match his numbers
Spoke different languages
Differences between countries (reasons for fighting GB vs Austria)
Soldiers
Often unable to deal with unpredictable strategies of warfare
Lack of enthusiasm of enemies to raise raw recruits until 1813-5 - fear of ill discipline, lack of cooperation from allies (Napoleon exploits)
Lacked enthusiasm
Other generals were effective
Battle of Austerlitz saved by successful generals
Not reliant on supplies which increased mobility and limited the weakness of armies
Organisation
Huge French levees
Ordre mixte
Combined ordre mince (thin line) and ordre profond (thick line)
Some of his tactics were taken from the best of the ancien regime
Ford (on tactics)
"His debt to the revolution" was his relentless pursuit of the retreating enemy, resulting in carnage
Could be argued he was only really legendary when on the defensive
Inherited an army that was superior to other European nations
Ancien Regime effectiveness
Conscription from the Terror
"Magnetic Personality" - a way with his troops that ensured they didn't want to fail him
Living off the Land was adopted from army drill book 1791
Military engineers also inherited (which were in short supply among enemies)
Detailed planning and quick speed to ensure best positions in battles
Government
Superior Tactics until 1813-5
First Consul also Commander in Chief
Manoeuvred the enemy into a weak position --> outnumbered charges with troops --> wore it down with mass artillery, bayonets, and cavalry --> pursued it relentlessly
Maximised involvement in army affairs
Maximised power potential
This only came into question in the War of the 6th Coalition: government considered accepting Austria's proposal of returning to 1792 borders
No conflict of civil or military interests
Centralised control
Ministry of War
Expanded and divided into two sections for army and administration
Travelled with troops and appeared to share their sugaring
Increased effectiveness
Organisation partly based on 1770's formations
Visited men before battles, delivered daily bulletin
Generals gained promotions off their own merit and were loyal
Awarded many medals - created Legion of Honour (encourages acts of valour)
Battle of Austerlitz: Russian and Austrian troops failed to cooperate (Napoleon then exploited their divisions)
Well paid and fed
Compared to allied generals: young, willing, approachable vs. old, cautious, and aloof
Able to utilise their enemies to his advantage
Slow to adapt tactics (more traditional)
Refused technological innovation (semaphore telegraph, underwater warships, explosive rockets, ground balloon, sharp knife on musket, new training methods)
High morale
Amalgame: mixed veterans with new soldiers to teach recruits
Often a result of successes and victories
O. Connelly
Promises of "la Gloire" (victory)
Criticised Napoleon's reputation as a general, many victories close, says he was often lucky
Murat, Ney, and Davout
Despite lacking numbers initially, was able to gather support due to the remaining loyalty of former soldiers
Failures
Methods
Conditions
Conclusion(s)
Napoleon's generalship WAS important - but not the be all end all
Also resulted in his downfall
Battle of Leipzig (1813): Russians adopted similar tactics and Napoleon was unable to respond effectively
Although this was also based on the terrain
Quality of troops and tactics of enemies gradually improved
Ignorance of weather and Climate (Egypt mud 1806), Russia (1812)
Although use of foreign armies in the Russian Campaign limited this unity and loyalty: almost reverted to the weaknesses of his enemies
Despite his lack of innovation with technology, his strategies mostly made up for it (until enemies began taking his ideas)
Napoleon had "walked too far"
Hesitated uncharacteristically in the Battle of Sorondino: it was his birthday (but resulted in battle)
Losses due to failure to stop pursuing and consolidate gains while enemies strength grew
Risks that previously had paid off (Marengo, Austerlitz) not always successful
Did not embrace technological advancement
Never prepared to negotiate or compromise - the confidence and arrogance that helped with military successes proved to be his downfall
Rejected submarines and explosive rockets
Losing support within France
Malet Affair: employing his son was not discussed (limits to his empire)
Decline in quality and size of French army: forced Napoleon to recruit from satellite states
Only half of 650,000 troops were French
Economic conditions: Continental System hurt France's economy and reduced industrial base