Please enable JavaScript.
Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.
Genetically modified organisms DO POSE a significant threat to the human…
Genetically modified organisms DO POSE a significant threat to the human race
Gene-Editing Practices (CRISPR) and GMOs
Where It's Leading
More and more moral and ethical questions are arising as CRISPR and its subsequent gene editing enter into the mainstream. (Park 122)
Ethical Concerns
Use on Humans
The dreams of CRISPR could turn into nightmares if used on people. (Miller 31)
Despite discouragement, Chinese scientific teams genetically modified human embryos that were endowed with a chromosome defect. (Miller 32)
The Chinese scientists learned, through their failure at correcting the defects with CRISPR, that the system has a long way to go before becoming viable for use in humans. (Miller 32)
CRISPR questions also surround how CRISPR should be used in wildlife, such as the current question surrounding mosquitos. (Miller 33)
However, in the end, the CRISPR question will always come back to humans. (Miller 33)
The creators of CRISPR say that it has "promise to cure genetic disease" but also warn of "unknown consequences to human health and well-being." (Miller 32)
"The overriding question is when, if ever, we will want to use gene editing to change human inheritance."(Miller 33)
"To answer it, you have to make a lot of assumptions and decisions that we don't want to make." (Miller 33)
"CRISPR could possibly be the beginning of the end of the simplest notion of each of us being endowed by the Creator with certain inalienable rights." (Miller 33)
"If we could keep a child from inheriting Huntington's Disease, would we want to do that? Maybe we would. At the very least, we should talk about it." (Miller 33)
Eugenics
The future scare could eventually lead to a society of eugenics, where we begin to decide what traits are desirable and who deserves to live and enrich the gene pool. (Benford)
The first age that we are passing through is the era of "editing out," when we stack and splice genes against genetic disorders. (Benford)
"Few resist the idea that we should be able to choose to not produce children with inheritable disorders, such as Down Syndrome." (Benford)
"However, many reject what's coming in the editing-in era, where parents can select positive aspects of their child's genetics. A crude version of this already happens when people choose sperm and egg donors." (Benford)
"One basic and uncontroversial type of therapy would involve somatic cells, which are ordinary cells in the body. Editing these would only affect the body of the person who contains them." (Miller 32)
If a group were to possess superior genes to the rest of society, then there is one more reason for low-gene possessing women to not reproduce. Therefore, we would end up with a mostly homogeneous society dominated by a genetic elite. (Benford)
The process of the genetic elite is not new to society ("ethnic cleansing") (Benford)
"People may not understand how popular eugenics once was, when some of the best scientists believed in it. Just because we can do it with more foresight and precision today doesn't mean that it's a good thing." (Miller 33)
"If everyone wanted blue-eyed children, we'd lose some of the beauty of the human race." (Miller 33)
"Brave New World is not a novel about science. It's a novel about politics and the choices that we make." (Miller 33)
With CRISPR, you've lit a fire. (Park)
What is gene editing?
GMOs
"A GMO is defined as an organism that has been modified by gene technology or an organism that has inherited particular traits from an organism, being traits that occurred in the original organism because of gene technology." (Ludlow 9)
Under law, a GMO would not include a human if such gene technology were to be applied to a human subject (which opens up a whole new ethical standpoint). (Ludlow 9)
"Gene technology is any technique for the modification of genes or other genetic material," regardless of whether its in an organism or not. (Ludlow 9)
"CRISPR provides an unparalleled ability to insert almost any trait into plants---drought for pest resistance, more of this vitamin or less of that nutritional villain de jour." (Park 121)
The U.S. Department of Agriculture contends that gene-edited crops are not different enough from their natural counterparts to warrant extensive regulation, despite the blatant insertion and deletion of natural genetic sequences. (Park 122)
CRISPR
Overview
CRISPR is shorthand for "clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats." (Park 119)
"The CRISPR protein can be programmed to search for specific sequences, like mutated ones that cause disease, among the 3 billion letters in the human DNA code. Once the mutated section is found, CRISPR unzips the twisted DNA strands, breaking them to cut out the targeted sequence with its molecular scissors. (Park 122)
CRISPR technology is so revered, inexpensive, and simple that most gene editing gets done by way of the CRISPR process. (Park 119)
"CRISPR allows scientists to easily and inexpensively find and alter virtually any piece of DNA in any species." (Park 118)
"Scientists have a tool allowing them, at least in theory, to wield unprecedented control over any genome, making it possible to delete bits of DNA, add snippets of genetic material, and even insert entirely new pieces of code." (Park 119)
"The idea of gene correction is not new at all, but before CRISPR it just never worked well enough so that people could do it routinely." (Park 119)
At this point, CRISPR is only in the early stages, but promises to be a technology that changes the course of human history, for the better or the worse. (Park 120)
Basic Implications
Beneficial
CRISPR could eventually be used to as a therapy to ease or even eliminate certain disorders, providing help to those with cancer or uncontrollable genetic disorders. (Park 118)
Alzheimer's
Type 2 Diabetes
Sickle-cell anemia
Cystic Fibrosis
CRISPR is attempting to be used in order to determine what causes and embryo to die in early stages of pregnancy. (Park 120)
Even though much is still unknown about human embryo development, it is thought that the deletion of certain genes by CRISPR could eliminate the possibility of the occurrence of certain diseases. (Park 119)
Negative
Even though CRISPR has the potential to edit the genes that increase the risk and even cause certain disorders, it also has the potential to be utilized to change the genes for other trivial traits, like height or color of hair. (Park 118)
"When we talk about altering genes to make children taller or smarter, we're talking about whole sets of genes that work together. We don't even know how to define intelligence, let alone how to increase it with genetic therapy." (Miller 33)
CRISPR could be abused if its technology finds its way into the wrong hands. (Park 118)
Due to its ease of use, the creators of CRISPR have stressed the importance of thought regarding where and how it gets used. (Park 120)
The full array of consequences related to CRISPR is not yet known. (Park 122)
Any changes to the basic kinds of cells like sperm, egg, and embryos is opposed by the National Institute of Health because the changes in the genome of the subject would be permanently changed and passed on to the next generation of offspring. (Park 118)
By using CRISPR, changes to a genome could literally occur overnight. (Park 119)
Genuine Health Concerns
Animal Studies
GMO studies involving animals have shown that the consumption of genetically modified foods can result in major health issues. (Smith)
Infertility
Immune System Problems
Accelerated Aging
Insulin Regulation
Changes in major organs and GI system.
Large numbers of animals feeding on GM crops develop sever symptoms and even die from ingestion. Common symptoms include signs of toxin exposure, such as severe irritation and black patches in the intestines and liver. (Smith)
Livestock are negatively affected by the consumption of GMO feed. Reproductive problems often plague livestock, like buffalo and pigs. (Smith)
On the home front in the United States, a newsworthy group of two dozen large scale pig farms reported thousands of their pigs going sterile after consuming certain varieties of GMO corn. (Smith)
In India, buffalo that are fed genetically modified cottonseed had reproductive issues consisting of premature deliveries, infertility, and prolapsed uteruses. (Smith)
Human Societal Health Trends
Just as in animal studies, a whole host of maladies are on the rise in the U.S. population, especially youth, such as low birth weight, infertility, and infant mortality. (Smith)
GMOs have been shown to raise cytokine levels in organisms that ingest them, which are linked to asthma, allergies, and inflammation, all of which are on the rise in the U.S. (Smith)
Both genetically modified corn and soy produce two new proteins as a result of genetic modification, both of which function as allergens when ingested. (Smith)
Genetically modified corn and soy also produce nearly seven times the amount of the allergen produced by their non-GMO counterparts. Humans react to a GMO soy allergy test, but usually not a non-GMO soy one. (Smith)
Healthcare Warnings
"In the first nine years after the large scale introduction of GM crops in 1996, the incidence of people with three or more chronic diseases nearly doubled, from 7% to 13%." (Smith)
"The AAEM states that GMOs have not been properly tested and pose a serious health risk." (Smith)
"If there are problems, we will never know because the cause will not be traceable and many diseases take a very long time to develop." (Smith)
"The AAEM calls on physicians to educate their patients, the medical community, and the public to avoid GM foods when possible and provide educational materials concerning GM foods and health risks." (Smith)
"The AAEM calls for a moratorium on GM foods, long-term independent studies, and labeling."
Labeling
Consumers have the right to know what they're eating and the consequences of it, even for non-health purposes. (Levaux)
The general public's attitude towards wanting GMOs labeled reflects a desire of the people to know things like the effect its production has on the people who grow it, the planet we share, and the organisms we eat. (Lavaux)
1 more item...
The standard argument against labeling is that nothing material would be revealed by disclosing that a product contains GMOs, as there are "no differences in calories, vitamins, toxins, etc." (Lavaux)
"What consumers really want is transparency, and what the food companies want is their money." (Lavaux)
Poison?!?
Genetically modified crops are engineered to produce their own toxins. (Smith)
Biotech companies introduce the bacterial gene for certain chemicals (Bt toxin) into the GM crops, so the crops will produce their own herb and pesticide. (Smith)
The companies claim that the toxin isn't harmful since the same herb and pesticide is found in the marketed sprays. (Smith)
"The Bt-toxin found in plants is thousands of times more concentrated than natural sprays, is designed to be more toxic, and, unlike the spray, cannot be washed off the plant." (Smith)
"The only published human feeding study revealed what could be the most dangerous problem from GM foods. The gene inserted to the crops [Bt-toxin] transfers into the DNA of bacteria living in our intestines and continues to function." (Smith)
Although we may stop eating GMOs, the cells in one's intestines could still function with the transferred GM gene ingested from the GM food, turning the human intestine into a living factory of toxic chemicals. (Smith)
Doctors are beginning to make a connection between the gene transfer capability of GMOs and the growing number of gastrointestinal ailments in the world population. (Smith)
Detrimental Environmental Impact
Contamination
"Contamination is the unintentional and/or unwanted presence of a substance, organism, or part of an organism in a particular environment, including within organisms." (Ludlow 3)
Genetic Contamination
"Genetic contamination is the contamination of the genetic makeup of other organisms." (Ludlow 3)
Cross-pollination may occur between a GMO and a third-party's plants, therefore contaminating the genetic make-up of the non-GMO plants. (Ludlow 3)
Physical Contamination
"Occurs where GMOs and their parts move from where they are released to other land." (Ludlow 3)
"Contamination may also occur through physical intermingling in the supply chain through processing, transporting, or distribution." (Ludlow 3)
GMOs are considered to pose a high risk of contamination . (Ludlow 4)
Pollen from a new genetically modified canola plant has been known to travel up to three kilometers away, further illustrating the risk of contamination in relation to GMOs. (Ludlow 4)
"Certain genetically modified fish are reported to be high risk because of their high risk of escape from containment." (Ludlow 4)
Contamination Implications
"The widespread cultivation of some genetically modified crops is also considered likely to have a major impact on existing forms of agriculture and the cross-pollination of neighboring sexually-compatible crops is inevitable." (Ludlow 4)
"Impacts Include..." (Ludlow 4)
"The need to take precautionary measures"
"The need to comply with regulatory requirements"
"The loss of market advantage"
"Possible infringement of patent rights"
"And general agricultural implications"
"Since the DNA in every organism is made up of the same units, DNA from different sources can be combined." (Ludlow 2)
"A gene endowing herbicide resistance may transfer from a GMO to a weed and the weed may then become difficult to control, requiring changes in weed management techniques." (Ludlow 5)
"Nonsexual transfer is also possible from one unrelated organism to another by virus or bacteria." (Ludlow 4)
The Destruction of Ecosystem Balance
On a large scale, it is unknown whether the gene transfer from a GMO to a native species would cause the adoption of a harmless trait, or whether the current anatomical pathways would be altered and produce toxic compounds. (HIZ 138)
"Genetically modified organisms are seen as an alien species that are capable to spread out and supplant native species." (HIZ 138)
"The possibility of allergic and toxic reactions, loss of biodiversity, genetic pollution, and ecotoxicity are the main concerns over GMOs." (HIZ 145)
Moderate Impact
In contrast, a moderate consequence of the introduction of a GMO into an ecosystem would be the reduction of the population densities of other organisms, but not to enough of a degree to actually pose a threat to the subsistence of that organism. (Winter 210)
Large Scale Impact
A large-scale catastrophic consequence of the introduction of a GMO into a certain environment is the reduction in numbers of other species of organisms, including those that are endangered or threatened. (Winter 210)
The damage caused to an ecosystem by a large-scale GMO introduction would likely be irreversible, or painstakingly slow at best. (Winter 210)
The transfer of the beneficial genes of GMOs to their wild counterparts results in the wild organisms gaining an unprecedented level of dominance in the ecosystem. (Winter 210)
Before the introduction of a GMO into a given ecosystem, risk factors have to be analyzed (Winter 210)
Frequency of Genetic Transfer
Circumstances for the release
Number of GMOs released
The introduction of aquatic GMOs can be surprisingly destructive to delicate aquatic ecosystems. (HIZ 139)
Aquatic ecosystems are even more susceptible to damage by the introduction of GMOs because the gene flow cannot be controlled by safety borders. (HIZ 139)
For example, the introduction of a genetically modified fish that is modified to grow larger and faster than their natural counterparts could result in the presence of a dominant GMO fish. (HIZ 139)
One large problem in the production of aquatic GMOs is the escape of genetically modified organisms from their designated production area into the greater natural ecosystem (HIZ 139)
By way of becoming the dominant organism in the aquatic ecosystem, the GMO fish could be responsible for a loss of genetic diversity and higher prevalence of genetically modified traits in nature. (HIZ 140)
Since it is impossible to monitor the growth of the aquatic GMO by way of biosafety borders, human monitoring of the GMO growth area is very much susceptible to malfunction. (HIZ 139)
"Nowadays, genetically modified algae and its biomass is important for biofuel production, yet during the cultivation process the gene flow from the algae is a major problem for aquatic ecosystems. (HIZ 136)
Negative Effects on Human Sustenance Agriculture
A few traits common beneficial traits introduced into genetically modified crops include improvement of quality of taste, the growth of nutrient elements (along with harvest and stress tolerance), and improved resistance to diseases, pests, and herbicides. (Popescu 55)
In the United States, government entities have adopted strategies to keep separate agricultural land where GMO crops are being produced and land where natural crops are being produced. (Popescu 55)
This is likely in order to prevent the contamination that is so often caused by GMOs.
About 90% of corn in the U.S. is now genetically modified to be resistant to herbicides ("Are" 17)
The huge percentage of corn in the world that is genetically modified is logically followed by an increase in the use of the herbicides that it is impervious to. ("Are" 17)
This overuse of chemical pesticides has created a new category of "super weeds" which possess immunity to even the strongest weed killers. ("Are" 17)
Genetically modified crops are usually made in order to allow farmers to MAXIMIZE the amount of pesticide and herbicide that they can use on their crops without causing them harm. By doing this, farmers believe that they are keeping weeds and pests under wraps better. (Smith)
However, using more chemical deterrents likely does little to the insects and weeds that have gained immunity to them.
Negative Social and Economic Footprint
"The major problem of the African population is starvation due to drought, flooding, and poor harvests." (HIZ 136)
"Importation of a quarter of African food caused an economic crisis and the collapsing of the African economy, due to the majority of its people being engaged in agriculture." (HIZ 136)
Three African countries, in response to economic and societal pressures, have begun to experiment with the planting of genetically modified crops. (HIZ 136)
South Africa
Egypt
Burkina Faso
"Kenya has claimed that GM crops are important to solving the world's starvation problem, since GM varieties have such properties as early maturing and drought and pest resistance." (HIZ 136)
Genetically modified cassava would be a huge breakthrough for the diets of those in poor rural areas , like Africa and Latin America. (HIZ 136)
GM cassava would be consumed by up to 500 million dependent people worldwide (which opens up a whole new level of problems in societies, economies, and health) (HIZ 136)
An underlying economic and social problem still exists below the purported benefits of the growth of genetically modified crops in the third-world. (HIZ 136)
Until third-world countries develop to the point of being able to have their own biotech sectors capable of producing GM crops and seeds, they will remain dependent on first-world suppliers . (HIZ 136)
1 more item...
Big Business Domination
"The most important economic disadvantage of green biotechnology is the making of biological seed companies into a monopoly and the causing of poor farmers." (HIZ 145)
Monopolization
Since GMO crops and seeds are technically intellectual property, they could lead to the dominance of a few companies on global food production and increased dependence of developing countries on the industrialized. (Popescu 55)
In a few more years, there may not be any truly non-genetically modified crops, considering the level of contamination that is occurring. At that point, there won't be any more debate about GMOs and non-GMOs. (Montague)
GMOs will essentially contaminate the entire planet, and the patent-owning companies of the GMO seeds will be sitting in the driver's seat of global agribusiness. (Montague)
Monsanto, the GMO and biotech giant, has already won extensive settlement in cases relating to farmers have Monsanto seeds growing illegally in their fields.
Monsanto and Dow "will be in a position to 'muscle' most of the world's farmers." (Montague)
In 2004, farmers in Saskatchewan, Canada were handed a loss in a legal case whereby they were held liable for their fields having been contaminated by pollen from nearby Monsanto GM plants.
"GMOs were supposed to produce important human health benefits-and to be developed under strict government control-but all of these promises have turned out to be just so much eye wash." (Montague)
"GMOs were supposed to reduce reliance on dangerous pesticides-but in fact they have had the opposite effect." (Montague)
"Perhaps benefits to the people of the world were never the point." (Montague)
"Perhaps the point was to get those first GMO crops in the ground-promise them [the people] the moon-and then allow nature to take its course and contaminate the rest of the world with patented pollen." (Montague)
Farmers and False Promises
Genetically modified crops have shown that they have not lived up to their promise of huge profits for farmers and huge benefits for consumers. (Montague)
When organically grown crops are contaminated by the seeds and pollen of GM varieties, they no longer qualify as "organically grown." With the loss of certification, organic growers can no longer demand the premium prices once feasible. (Montague)
"Growers of organically grown and conventional crops are naturally concerned that genetic contamination is hurting the acceptance of their products." (Montague)
The first genetically modified crops were planted in open fields in the U.S. in 1995. From the meager beginning, genetic contamination is well along. (Montague)
For many consecutive decades, the many biotech companies that developed genetically modified crops and seeds insisted that it would be impossible for genetic contamination to occur. The FDA went along with it, thus leading to the GMO crisis we have today. (Montague)
It couldn't have turned out better for biotech companies, like Monsanto, which are seeing their crops spread across the world, both naturally and by human farmers. (Montague)
"It is now acknowledged that GMOs are 'leaky technology'---that is, to say that genetically modified pollen is spread naturally by the wind, by insects, and by humans." (Montague)