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Chapter 7 Learning: Behavior changed by experience (Classical/Pavlovian…
Chapter 7
Learning: Behavior changed by experience
Classical/Pavlovian Conditioning: UCS is controlled by CS
Ivan Pavlov
dogs began to salivate before being fed (saw lab assistant going into the room)
bell + food in mouth = saliva
bell = saliva
Components of
Classical Conditioning
UCR Unconditional Response: A response that is naturally elicited by UCS
CS Conditional Stimulus: a stimulus associated with UCS = CR
UCS Unconditional Stimulus: a stimulus that naturally elicits a reflexive response
CR Conditional Response: the response elicited by the CS
Pavlov's Phenomena
Acquisition: the time during which a CR first appears and increases in frequency
Spontaneous Recovery: After an interval of time, the reappearance of a response that had previously been extinguished
(Stimulus) Generalization: CRs elicited by stimuli that resemble the CS used in training
Discrimination: The appearance of a CR when one stimulus is presented (the CS+) but not another (the CS-)
Extinction: the elimination of a response that occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without being followed by the UCS
Functions
Recognizing stimuli that predicts occurrences allows learner to respond quickly *Hollis studied Siamese fighting fish
Unimportant stimuli can become important stimuli: desirable interchangeable with undesirable
Ward-Robinson (pigeons)
Krank (rats)
Conditional Emotional Responses:
Todrank, Byrnes, Wrzesniewski and Rozin: pictures & odor ranking attractiveness. Rank depends of odor preference. CC role in development of personal likes/dislikes or emotional reactions
Phobia: Unreasonable fear of specific objects/situations learned through CC
Dalhousie University:
CC = CS must be predictor of UCS
Learned CC
Neutral stimulus = CS when:
CS regularly occurs prior to the presentation of the UCS
The CS does not regularly occur when the UCS is absent
Blocking:The prevention of or attenuation in learning that occurs to a neural CS when it is conditioned in the presence of a previously conditioned stimulus
The what and where of future events
When:
Inhibitory conditional response: A response tendency conditioned to a signal that predicts the absence of the UCS; generally not observed directly but assessed through other tests
Excitatory conditional response: A response tendency conditioned to a signal that the UCS is about to occur. This is the type of CR exemplified by Pavlov's salivation response
Cole and Miller (1999) trained rats, speculated that a form of temporal integration would occur, and that the rats would demonstrate an excitatory CR
Results: Even though the CS(f) had never been presented prior to a UCS, the rats behaved as though it signaled an upcoming UCS
What:
Resclora suggests behavior is determined by memory of the event
Hollis, Langworthy-Lam, Blouin and Romano (2004) used blue gouramis to demonstrate this idea
Results: it is not just the UCR that determines the CR, but rather the memory of what the CS predicts
Hilliard and Domjan (1995) examined sexual behaviors in male Japanese quail
Results: What was learned involved a memory of the UCS, a memory that could be altered by subsequent experience such as satiation
Habituation: Simplest form of learning; learning not to respond to an unimportant even that occurs repeatedly
George Humphrey, studied land snails
Rankin: worm (nematoda) = habituation to tap-elicited withdrawal without affecting heat stimulus
Orienting response: Any response by which an organism directs appropriate sensory organs toward the source of a novel stimulus
Types (To distinguish, patterns of experience)
Short-term habituation *massed, quick
Long-term habituation *small groups, spaced (more complex animals
Operant Conditioning: A form of learning in which behavior is affected by its consequences. Favorable consequences strengthen the behavior and unfavorable consequences weaken the behavior.
The Law of Effect:
Thorndike's idea that the consequences of a behavior determine whether it is likely to be repeated
Natural selection determines which members of a species will survive and reproduce, while the law of effect determines which responses will survive and become part of the organism's behavioral repertoire
Edward L. Thorndike
placed hungry cat inside "puzzle box"
successive trials of activating latch resulted in learning correct response because of the favorable outcome: food
Stimulated experimental studies aimed at understanding behavior-environment interactions; today, known as
behavior analysis
Skinner and Operant Behavior
Burrhaus Frederic Skinner
Studied law of effect and advocated the application of behavioral analysis and its methods to solving human problems
Devised objective methods for studying behavior by inventing an apparatus
Operant chamber: An apparatus by which an animal's behavior can be easily observed, manipulated and automatically recorded
A mechanical device connected to an operant chamber for the purpose of recording operant responses as they occur in time
Behavior analysts manipulate environmental events to determine their effects on
response rate
. Events that increase this rate strengthen responding; events that decrease the rate weaken responding
Skinner advances Thorndike's research methods because participants can:
(1) emit responses more freely over a greater time period
(2) be studied for longer periods of time without interference produced by the researcher handling or otherwise interacting with them between trials
The Three-Term
Contingency
Discriminative stimulus: the stimulus that sets the occasion for responding because, in the past, a behavior has produced certain consequences in the presence of that stimulus
Skinner distinguished:
The preceding event = the
discriminative stimulus
The
response
we make =
operant behavior
The
following event
- is the consequence of the operant behavior
The consequences are produced by the behavior. In the presence of a discriminative stimuli, a consequence will only occur if an operant behavior occurs. Without this, the operant behavior will have no effect.
Reinforcement, Punishment, and Extinction
Punishment: A decrease in the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by an aversive stimulus
punisher: If an aversive stimulus follows a response and decreases the frequency of that response
Negative side effects
Unrestrained use of physical force may cause serious bodily injury
Punishment often includes fear, hostility, and other undesirable emotions in people receiving punishment. It may result in retaliation against the punisher
-Through punishment, organisms learn only which response not to make. Punishment does not teach the organism desirable responses
Reinforcement
Positive: and increase in the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by an
appetitive stimulus
appetitive stimulus: any stimulus than an organism seeks out
positive reinforcer: when an appetitive stimulus follows a response and increases the frequency of that response
Negative: an increase in the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by the termination of an
aversive stimulus
aversive stimulus: unpleasant or painful stimulus
negative reinforcer: when an aversive stimulus is terminated as soon as a response occurs and thus increases the frequency of that response
Extinction: A decrease in the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by the termination of an appetitive stimulus
Behavior that is no longer reinforced decreases in frequency - it is said to
extinguish
Response cost: A decrease in the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by the termination of an appetitive stimulus
Response cost is a form of punishment
time out from positive reinforcement
: the procedure that produces response cost, when it is used to remove a person physically from an activity that is reinforcing to that person
Other Operant Procedures and Phenomena
Resistance to Extinction and Intermittent Reinforcement
A response that has been reinforced intermittently is more resistant to extinction
An organism whose behavior has been reinforced intermittently has had a lot of experience making non-reinforced responses
Intermittent Reinforcement: The occasional reinforcement of a particular behavior; produces responding that is more resistant to extinction
Probability-based patterns
require a variable number of responses for each reinforcer
Behavior analysts refer to this pattern of intermittent reinforcement as a
ratio schedule of reinforcement
Fixed-interval schedule: A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response that is made after a fixed interval of time since the previous reinforcement (or the start of the session) is reinforced
Variable-ratio schedule: A schedule of reinforcement similar to a fixed-ratio schedule but characterized by a variable response requirement ha
Variable-interval schedule: A schedule of reinforcement similar to a fixed-interval schedule but characterized by a variable time requirement having a particular mean
Fixed-ratio schedule: A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of responses have been made since the previous
Generalization and Discrimination
Discrimination: responding only when a specific discriminative stimulus is present but not when similar stimuli are present
Generalization: the occurrence of responding when a stimulus similar (but not identical) to the discriminative stimulus is present
Herrnstein and Loveland (1964) trained pigeons to respond to the concept of a human being
Jitsumori and Yoshihara (1997) found that pigeons were generally using individual elements to form their categories
Njegovan and Weisman (1997) trained chickadees to discriminate different "songs" consisting a pair of notes
Shaping: The occasional reinforcement of a particular behavior; produces responding that is more resistant to extinction
the target behavior
: the behavior displayed by a person having the appropriate skill
Conditioned Reinforcement and Punishment
Primary punisher: A biologically significant aversive stimulus, such as pain
Primary reinforcers: A biologically significant appetitive stimulus, such as food or water
Conditioned (or secondary) reinforcer (or punisher): A stimulus that acquires its reinforcing properties through association with a primary reinforcer. Sometimes referred to as a secondary reinforcer.
Conditions of Complex Behaviors