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Morphology (:three: Parameters (Fusion - degree to which morphological…

- - - - Affix
        
        4 types
        
        Infix - places itself inside a morpheme, usually a root or a stem (Maranao - -i- marks past tense: tabasan - tiabasan "slashed")
        
        Curcumfix - at least two types of affixation have to occur at the beginning and at the end of the host at the same time (German geliebt)
        
        Suffix - attaches to the end of the host word (happiness)
        
        Parafix - the two a xes that have to occur at the same time do not necessarily attach at the beginning and end of the host word (Ilocano - reciprocal prefix ag- + infix -inn-: sakit "hurt" > agsinnakit "hurt one another")
        
        Prefix - attaches to the beginning of the host word (unhappy)
        
        Derivational (create new words) vs inflectional (carry grammatical information)
        
        :pencil2: an obligatorily bound morpheme which does not carry any lexemic information
      - Clitics
        
        differences from affixes
        
        both phonologically dependent on the host, BUT: clitics are syntactically independent of the host, affixes are not
        
        attach to the word immediately in front or after them (or inside them): English - will: The dog'll = it'll
        
        clitics may function as a constituent of their own (Italian: è venuto per parl-ar=mi. "Mi" is an object)
        
        very often clitics are a reduced version of a free counterpart while a affixes are not ('ll vs. -ed)
        
        Places on the host
        
        mesoclitic - between the host and the inflectional affixes (very rare; in Portuguese pedirlheia ‘I would ask him.’)
        
        endoclitic - inside the root or stem (only in 2 lang-s: Udi and Pashto)
        
        enclitic / postclitic - at the end of the host
        
        proclitic - attaches at the beginning of the host (French j'attends)
  - - - for work, works, worked and working is work
- - - - .
        
        Fusion
        
        Nonflexive isolating - (e.g. Pichi) typical (nonflexive often isolating, isolating most often nonflexive)
        
        Nonflexive concatinative - very common (e.g. Turkish)
        
        Flexive isolating - very rare (e.g. Sierra Otomí)
        
        Nonflexive non-linear (e.g. Kisi)
        
        Flexive nonlinear (common in Semitic languages - Hebrew)
        
        Flexive concatenative (German) - the most common combination
        
        Exponence
        
        Nonflexive cumulative (Hawai‘i Creole English)
        
        Nonflexive separative (Pichi)
        
        Flexive cumulative (German)
        
        Flexive separative (Walpiri)
  - - - chain together in linear strings --> segmentable
      - Very common
        
        7,9% isolation + concatenation
        
        4,2% concatenation + non-linearity (1,2% with tone and 3% with ablaut)
        
        75,8% concatenation exclusively for case and TMA
    - - Ablaut
        
        Vowel gradation - Germanic languages
        
        "Root-and-pattern" in Semitic languages: neither the root, nor the vowel pattern can function on its own
        
        Rare cross-linguistically: none uses ablaut exclusively, five combine with concatenation
      - Suprasegmentals (or prosodic formatives)
        
        tone, stress(Spanish: 'cant'o) and length, are another type of non-linear morphological processes
        
        Tone common in continental South East Asia and in sub-Saharan Africa (3,6% of languages for gram info)
      - Replacement (or substitution)
        
        Suppletion - a root or stem is paradigmatically replaced by a root or stem of a di erent etymological origin (English: go - went)
        
        regular marker replaces a part of the stem (common in Nilotic languages)
      - Subtraction
        
        taking out an element of the stem
    - - Not very common
        
        9,7% exclusively isolating (mainly in South East Asia and West Africa + 2 Austronesian Oceanic languages and 3 in South America)
        
        0,6% (1 lang) isolation + non-linear (tones)
        
        7,9% isolation + concatenation
    - - :pencil2:copying a set amount of phonological material from a base form (root or stem) and fusing it with that base to form a stem onto which other mor- phemes may then be added
      - Classification
        
        Full vs Partial
        
        copying the whole base vs copying only a set part of the base and other forms
        
        Most languages - full + partial; 9,5% - only full
        
        Discontinuous - the reduplicant separated from the base by some particle
        
        Simple vs Complex
        
        Simple: the reduplicant repeats a given amount of material from the base
        
        Complex: taking material from the base and partly altering it
        
        Automatic - reduplication obligatory due to an affix, but no additional meaning
  - - - Polysynthetic - differ from the synthetic in that it involves more than one lexeme. E.g. from Mamaindê: jukhoʔthĩntu - ‘village hanging on the edge’ (3 lexemes: in bold)
      - Analytic - do not take any a xation to their lexical roots or stems. Analytic / periphrastic way: He will walk home.
      - Synthetic - allow affixation. He walked home.
- - - - all of them are relevant and may combine with each other
      - all have to do with how morphemes combine
      - 4th parameter - synthesis (how much grammatical information a word may carry)
      - languages differ as to what kinds of morphological combinations they tend to employ (therefore, terms like: predominantly isolating or predominantly non-linear)