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vocal register (physical: (Sewell, 1990) The light mechanism (''…

- - - - Dykema and Cundiff (1939), Joyner (1969), Moorhead and Pond (1978), and Wassum (1979) subscribe to three-register theories.
        
        (Francis Howard, 1895) (from Sewell, 1990) He believed that every music teacher needed a physiological understanding of vocal production in children and that the only majoy way to improve was through the teaching of good vocal habits.
        
        (from Sewell, 1990) most teachers of singing place the upper limit or natural break of the chest register at e4 or f4 above middle c.
        
        Bates (1907) (from Sewell, 1990) concludes that the head voice beautifies and preserves the voice. Chest voice, which he calls a combination of the ''speaking'' and ''shouting'' voice, stiffens the throat and fixes the larynx, causing a greater effort to be used to produce the tone. In addition, the use of the chest voice deprives a singer of his ''quality-making resonators''.
  - - - In the English sound model, the pitches of fourth-line d5 and above are clear and resonant, but the octave from middle c4 to third space c5 fades out in power, clarity, and resonance.
        
        The extreme opposite in production is a full or heavy chest voice production. It is louder, heartier, and some say, more ''energetic'', but it is also more raucous, less musical, and it is certain to cause vocal fatigue and ultimately vocal damage from forcing a sound beyond its natural limits. The overall sound lacks in expressive capabilities. Music ranges must be lowered to accommodate the pushed voices, adding new pitches to the bottom of the range.
        
        Another ideal is the best sound possible throughout the entire range. This is the Vienna Boy Choir or the European boy choir tradition. The pedagogy is rooted in the concept of the head voice, but also recognizes more than one register of vocal production. It teaches the students to develop and blend the special qualities of each register. Downward vocalization mixes and adds ''body'' to the head register in the lower ranges, without promiting the harshness, the potential for damage, or the ''pop'' connotations of the raw chest tone. This integration, top down, produces voices that are clear, resonant, and musically expressive at any pitch level.
        
        Singing ranges and registers are undeniably related. The set of tones produced in one register may logically be called a range for that register or mechanism of vocal production. The inability to make the transition from one register to another as pitches change sets a limit on the singing range available to a given singer. Some have only experienced the lower speaking voice register and, therefore, cannot find the higher ''head'' voice.
  - - - (Titze, 1994) The terminology of vocal registers had generated a considerable amount of debate in the past, primary because speech scientists and singing teachers have used simialr terms to describe somewhat different phenomena (or different terms to describe the same phenomenon). Because physiologic and acoustic descriptions of vocal registers have been incomplete, there has been much room for debate over the number of identifiable registers, their names, their origins, and their pedagogical utility in voice training. (Colton & Hollien, 1972).
        
        (Titze, 1994) P253 The term register has been used to describe perceptually distinct regions of vocal quality that can be maintained over some ranges of pitch and loudness. Register changes may occur voluntarily or involuntaroly. The stair-step change is illustrated in Figure 10.1, :<3: where vocal quality is plotted against some physiologic or acoustic variable that controls pitch or loudness. It is important, to state that this variable should be able to change continuously and gradually. A one-register voice is effectively a no-register voice because there are no abrupt transitions to draw attention to a quality change.
        
        All vocal sounds with localized pulses and gaps (F0 below Fc) are then perceived as pulse register (or vocal fry). Above Fc there may be other registers, but non have the pulselike quality.
        
        Using the qualities of musical instruments as an analogy, the sound changes from ''brassy'' to ''flutu.'. A brass instrument has many harmonics (a shallow spectral slope), whereas a flute has fewer harmonics (a steep spectral slope).
        
        (Titze, 1994) p 262 A major unresolved issue in the study of registers is the consistency with which involuntary register changes occur at specific fundamental frequencies. Vocalists and listeners can often detect quantal changes in the voice when a scale or glissando is usng and no quality changes are intended. In fIGURE 10.8 P265 :<3:
        
        Van den Berg (1963, 1968a, and 1968b) (from Walker, 1986) reported rich harmonic activity in the chest register, inter-mediate activity in the middle register and sparse activity in the falsetto. The trend of decreasing harmonics with increasing pitch holds true in spite of vocal tract influence. This obviously strengthens the relationship of laryngeal function and spectral activity.
        
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        (From McAllister et al, 2000) Titze (1988) suggested that resonance is also relevant to the register phenomenon.
        
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  - - - (Titze, 1988) Speakers and singers of both sexes tend to shift register between D4 (294 Hz) and F4 (349 Hz). The transition can be smoothed out by training, as is done in the operatic and lieder styles of singing, or it can be accentuated and employed artistically, as in yodelling and some country-western styles.
        
        (From Titze, 1988) Van den Berg appeared to have a good case for this on the basis of his 300 Hz (d4) :<3: measurement of the first sub glottal formant on cadavers . The measurement was either in error or inappropriate, however, for later measurements on live subjects ::have established a 500 (b4)- to 600 Hz (d5) range for the first formant frequency in the trachea (ref 23, 24). :<3: Based on these revised measurements, and in particular the most recent 510 Hz measurement reported by Cranen and Boves (24), we will now provide evidence that timbre registers are linked to resonance phenomena in the trachea. :red_flag:
        
        (Titze, 1988) sub glottal resonance reinforces vocal fold vibration at F0=(3/5) F1 and impedes it at F0=F1. For F1=510Hz, the favourable fundamental frequency is 306 Hz and the unfavourable frequency is 510 Hz.
        
        (From Oren, 2003) Every voice has its own set of potentials according to individual endowment.
        
        (Oren, 2003) I discuss register #2 first because it is the most familiar to us. It is generally accepted that this represents the quality and range of voice employed by normal, healthy human beings in everyday speech. In singing, it would relate to the easy middle notes used by the vast majority of untrained people when singing hymns or folk tunes. "The thyroarytenoid muscle is known to be active in modal register." (ref 8). "It is sometimes divided into two bundles: the thyrovocalis, or 'vocalis' and the thyromuscularis. The result of its contraction is to shorten and thicken the vocal folds." ref 9. It is acknowledged that this register forms the core of what is called the "Broadway voice" or the "popular voice" in singing. A big percentage of the vocal music we hear on TV and radio is confined to hardly more than an octave, often with little change in dynamics, and is sung in this register, both male and female. Classical singing uses a wider range.
        
        (Oren, 2003) the next most familiar register is 3. we don't use this part of the voice in ordinary speech, it needs to be given special exercises for singing.
        
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        The notes around D3 and D4 should therefore p191 be optimally suited for chest register production. For slightly higher frequencies, it is seen in Fig.7 that the vibrational amplitude decreases quickly, causing the abduction quotient to increase and the register to shift toward a poorer timbre. The notes around 200 Hz (G⌗3) and those in the region of 400-800 Hz (about G4-G5) should therefore be bess suitable for chest production. Tenors are well aware of this, the region from G4 to C5 being the most difficult for production with rich timbre (chest voice). :<3: :<3: :<3:Figure 7 p190
        
        (Titze, 1988) It is conceivable that all of the major register transitions identified by vocal pedagogues for singing can be accounted for by first sub glottal resonance. If we consider an approximate 10-20% difference in tracheal length between basses and sopranos, the peaks and valleys will all have a spread of this percentage. In musical terms, it would correspond to 2-3 semitones, which agrees with the observed spread in involuntary register transitions. Furthermore, if we consider the involuntary transitions to take place somewhere between the peaks and valleys in Fig.7, i.e., near the zero crossings, we would predict a total of four transitions. Three transitions would be in the male two-octave range C3-C5 (note scale on top) and two in the female two-octave range C4-C6 . One transition overlaps both genders.The common transition is the second passaggio for males and primo passaggio for females. It is the major chest to falsetto transition following D4.
        
        (Titze, 1988) Two of the transitions might be called facility and two inhibitory for chest voice. Thus the D3-G ⌗3 and the D4-C5 transitions are inhibitory (downward in Fig 7), whereas the G⌗-- D4 and the C5-C6 transitions are facilitory (upward in Fig.7). :<3: :<3: :<3:
        
        (Titze, 1988) much attention is paid to the inhibitory transitions in voice training because they have a greater potential for vocal debilitation.
        
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- - - - Miller (1986) continues the Italian bel canto tradition of naming the first shift (the point at which the laryngeal elevation occurred) the ''primo passaggio'' (first register shift), and the second point, about a perfect fourth higher, the ''secondo passaggio'' (second register transition). (Wurgler, 1990) p46
        
        The child voice is closer in anatomical size and vocal production to the adult female voice than it is to the adult male voice. It may, therefore, be postulated that register events and related production difficulties are similar to some degree in children and adult females. p47...(Wurgler, 1990)
        
        (from Wurgler, 1990) ''the highest note in the chest register in all female voices-contralto, mezzo-sopranos dramatic soprano, and light soprano-varies between E4, 330 Hz, and F4-sharp, 370 Hz. (Marchesi, in Large and Murray, 1980).
        
        (from Wurgler, 1990) the average finding placed the lower limits of the middle voice in the area of d4 (294 Hz) to f4 (349 Hz).
        
        see figure 7 :<3: (from Wurgler, 1990) ; also see Miller (1986) :check:
        
        Students who have not learned, either formally or informally, house the true singing voice, the head voice, cannot ascend beyond the upper limits of speaking voice production (from Wurgler, 1990)
        
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        Large et al, 1969a, 1969b, 1973 and 1974, (from Walker, 1986), in the course of several related studies investigated spectral and perceptual characteristics of the 'chest' and 'middle' registers in the female voice. A paired-tone technique was developed where fundamental frequency, sound pressure level and phonemic category were held constant with differences in register being the only variable.
        
        Large et al (1969a, 1969b, 1973 and 1974) Register identification judgements by expert listeners agree remarkably well (92% of the time) with the intentions of singer-subjects producting paired tones (tones of the same fundamental frequency, phonemic category and sound level) in female chest and middle registers at 300 Hz, :<3: with the vowel /a/, and other two vowels at comfortable but equal sound level--except when the singer-subject produces paired tones that are judged to be well 'equalized'. The '300Hz' same as Wurgler's Priamary registers). :red_flag: d4
        
        Large et al (1969a, 1969b, 1973 and 1974) Result: The order of presentation of register pairs, either by duplication or reversed order within an item, does not appear to affect register judgements.
        
        Large et al (1969a, 1969b, 1973 and 1974) Results: Register judgments do not appear to be vowel- dependent.
        
        Large et al (1969a, 1969b, 1973 and 1974) Perceived register-timbre differences do appear to be correlated at least in part, with different distrubutions of energy in the spectral envelope. Chest register in this study (for a given fundamental frequency of 330 Hz) is characterized by greater energy in the harmonics above the 3rd partial :?, eapecially numbers 4 and 5. Middle register appears to have a stronger fundamental and third partial--but not markedly.
        
        criticle from (Walker, 1986) Overall, large' s data supported his conclusions. The register identification judgements tended to be greater than in other studies of this nature. This was probably due to the nature of his auditors who were experienced voice teachers. One might anticipate that experienced auditors would be better able to perceive registers than naive or student/singers groups.
        
        criticle **from (Walker, 1986) The conclusion that register judgments do not appear to be vowel-related may be a bit premature. The singer-subjects were asked to perform the tasks on the vowel /a/; however, vowel evaluation by a trained phonetician indicated that actual vowel quality included /a/, /o/, and IAI. Acoustically, these vowels are quite similar and do not provide enough variation in vowel quality to support the above premise. Large, however, does point out this discrepancy in his discussion.
        
        Schoenhard and Hollien (1982) (from Walker, 1986) chose to use eight accomplished female singers as their subjects. Three 'registers' were examined: 'low (also could be labeled modal, chest, heavy registration); mid (mixed, head, Garcia's falsetto); and High (falsetto, head, Vennard's light registration).
        
        As in other studies of this nature, fundamental frequency, intensity and vowel production were controlled insofar as possible. Subjects produced samples of each register at the frequency G4, 392 Hz, :<3: on the vowel /a/ at approximately equal intensity levels. According to the authors, though frequency and vowel were easily controlled, vocal intensity (due to the nature of the tasks) varied occasionally from the desired level. see Figure :<3:
        
        Schoenhard and Hollien (1982) (from Walker, 1986) Tge mid-register samples were placed in the other two categories over half of the time. Midregister judgments were confused with upper register thirty-three per cent of the time and with lower register nineteen per cent of the time. 'when the data for the high and low registers are compared statistically, it is found that they are similar with respect to both their 'strength' and their patterning.'
        
        ( Walker, 1986) results: Overall, whistle register phonations exhibited fewer harmonics than did head register phonations. Air flow rates were found to be significantly less during whistle register phonation.
        
        (Morris, et al, 2012) The g(f) analysis revealed the difference in spectral gain across frequencies between the piano and forte productions for each register.
        
        (Neumann et al 2005) formant tuning is obviously the most appropriate way to manage register transition and equalization (Titze, 1988). So far there exists no generally accepted definition of the transition from 'chest' to 'head' register which is based on objective determinants. :<3: :<3:
        
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- - - - (McAllister, et al., 2000) from McAllister et al. The data of low and high register are higher than Wurgler's. :red_flag:
        
        Wendler and Anders (22) (from McAllister et al 2000) proposed that a restricted Fo range of less than 18 semitones can be a useful measurement when clinically assessing dysphonic children's voices.
        
        (Large, 1970) method: Five adult female voice students were selected from the School of Music, Unversity of Southern California. Each subject was tested for her ability to maintain chest and middle registers separately and to sing the task illustrated in figure 4(it is a major scale G major). The subjects were instructed to sing the vowel /a/ in chest register from A3 (220Hz) to the transition tone E4 (330 Hz). While holding this tone at a comfortable level they were asked to note the VU-meter sound level reading and after approximately two seconds transit to the middle register. After adjusting any discrepancy between the sound level in the new register and the sound level previously noted, and after holding the transition tone is the middle register an additional two seconds, they were instructed to continue singing the scale in middle voice to A (440 Hz). Subjects were reminded from time to time to keep the vowel constant and to sing normal vibrato at all times. Five samples which satisfied the stated conditions were obtainded from each subject/ . The purpose of the present study was to investigate the air flow rates of 'isoparametric tones' (same fundamental frequency, sound level, and vowel) in different registers (female chest and middle registers) in singing.
        
        (Large, 1970). The figure 5 is very important for me! : :<3: :<3: :<3:which ilustrate vocal register is influced by flow rate. ask Large's permission for the Figure.! :check: It is clear in Figure 5 that when the singer transits from chest to middle register there is a marked increase in air flow. (used E4 as a transition). All of the subjects demonstrated the change of air flow between the 2 registers. Each subject showed slightly different values of air flow rate in chest register for the five samples. It is interesting to note how much the air flow rate in middle register increases against that in chest register at the same fundamental frequency and intensity.see figure 5. These differences may correspond the different physiologic laryngeal mechanisms. :red_flag: The change in air flow rate in the middle-to-chest direction is higher than the corresponding change in the chest-to-middle direction. The rate of decrease of air flow rate from middle register to chest register is, therefore, lower than the reverse action-ranging from 1.2 to 2.0. It is also interesting to note that most of these pneumotachographic与脉动扫描同步 portrayals of register samples showed a synchrony of the intensity vibrato and the variation in the mean level of air flow. Result: 1) that the difference in air flow between subjects is greater than the variation within subjects, and 2) that the difference in air flow between the two registers reached a high level of statistical significance. This study, therefore, supports theory that tones of one register are produced by one mechanical principle and tones of a different register are produced by a different mechanical principle (Garcia, 1840). Additionally, the present investigation corroborates Garcia's observation (1855) that a greater air flow is found in middle register than in chest register.
        
        (Large, 1970) In musical performance, the singers used as subjects in this experiment woud have a choice between chest register and middle register in this area of register overlap. Of primae consideration in making this choice would be the mood or character of the literary text and the music. Other factors would include the performance practice of a particular historical style period and the techniques of a specific vocal method. The special advantages in using 'isoparametric' pairs for studies of vocal registers lie in the above-mentioned relation to performance practive and in the control of certain variables: fundamental frequency, intensity level, and vowel.
        
        (Large, 1970) According to van den Berg (1968b), the larynx in chest voice is characterized by a relatively long closure of the glottis with discrete puffs of air, while the mid-voice presents a relatively short closure with a flow of air that is briefly interupted. The longer closure in chest register produces a glottal pulse that is more peaked and is, therefore, responsible for the high frquency energy typical of this adjustment. (Tarnoczym 1951), With the designated factors constant (frequency, intensity level, and vowel), the corresponding middle register would be produced by a broader glottal pulse with less explosiveness resulting from the longer openging quotient.**
      - In McAllister et al, 2000) is the group of children, the first register transition varied between 396 and 560 Hz, or about 25% higher than adults, whose register transitions can be predicted at 260 - 500 Hz, depending on tracheal length. :<3: According to a growth index for Swedish children, the 10-year-old child is approximately 25% shorter than the average adult (ref 8) :check:.
        
        According to Titze (21), register transitions may depend on sub- and supraglottal resonances. The pitch at which the main register transtions occur can be calculated from the length of the trachea. Titze predicted that reinforcement of vocal fold vibration is achieved when the subglottal pressure is positibe during the openging phase and negative during the closing phase. If the tracheal resonance returns the reflection of the glottal pulse out of phase with the glottal vibration, a register transition is likely to occur.
- - - - (Rukowski, 1986)Children who use initial singing range, usually D3 to A3; and
        
        (Rukowski, 1986) 5. Children who are able to sing over the register lift, C3-flat and above (Gordon, 1971; Smith, 1963; Young, 1971).
        
        Smith scale (Rukowski, 1986) the rating scale constructed by Smith (1961) seems to be one of the first rating scales used to evaluate young children's singing voice. Smith specified criteria for each of the four scoring levels used to evaluate the performance of intervals. This scale was intended to measure intonation of intervals rather than use of the singing voice. Smith (1971) rating scale 1 complete lack of tone matching ability. 2 child was able to sing only one of the two tones
        
        complete accuracy but with a tendency to slide into either the first or second interval tone.4
        complete accuracy in reproducing an interval.
        
        After the pilot study Rutkowski's scale updated to : 1. 'pre-singer' does not sing but chants the song text. 2 ''speaking range singer'' sustains tones and exhibits some sensitivity to pitch but remain in the speaking voice range (usually A2 to C3); 3 ''uncertain singer'' wavers between speaking and singing voie, uses a limited range when in singing voice (usually up to F3). 4. ''Initial range singer'' exhibits use of initoal singing range (usually D3 to A3). 5''singer'' exhibits use of extended range (sings beyond the register lift: B3-flat and above). The notes in this range is same with the modern scale! (Rukowski, 1986)
        
        conclusion: The raters were more consistent rating pattern performances than rating song performances. A comparison of the song subtest reliabilities from the experimental study with thoes of the pilot study, comprised of the same types of performances, revealed that the measure functioned similarly in both situations. It was concluded that SVDM was an appropriate measure of use of singing voice for this study.
        
        (Rukowski, 1986) contrasts 1,2, and 3, for all groups, the pattern performance scores were higher than the song performance scores, although all differences were samll.
        
        The primary goal of this study was to examine the reliability of Rutkowski's Singing Voice Development Measure for use in the general music classroom, Grades 1-6. Results indicated that the rating scale, although originally designed for young children, is reliable for use when children in Grades 1-5 perform a short major song in solo. Results from ancillary problems indicate that (a) elementary children may have a better use of their singing voice when performing a major song than a minor song, (b) a large portion of the children sampled did not have full use of their singing voice. :star:
        
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      - (Harkey, 1979) (from Rukowski, 1986) The purpose of this study was to determine the vocal range of three-year-old children and the effect of training on range.
        
        Joyner (1971) studied the voice range of 130 children as an ancillary problem to an investigation of...he focused on children 4.7 and 5.6 year old.
        
        Young, 1971 (Rukowski, 1986) was to investigate the singing abilities of kindergarten and first grade children. The range of G3-sharp to B3 posed the most problem for these children. Even those who could sing above these pitches had difficulty within this range.