CT2 Argument Mapping

statement

with truth value
= proposition

Chapter 1

argument

a group of statements, one or more of which (the premises) are claimed to provide support for, or reasons to believe, one of the others (the conclusion).
or inference

good argument

  • premises support conclusion, but not necessarily true

conclusion

validity
relevance & good grounds
sound argument

inductive

argument forms:
prediction
analogy
generalization
argument from authority
based on signs
causal inference

deductive

  • argument forms
    • hypothetical syllogism
    • disjunctive syllogism
    • categorical syllogism
    • mathematics (not stats)
    • definition

weak

strong

valid

premises support conclusion

invalid

cogent

premises probably support conclusion & premises are true

We can prove the argument invalid by constructing a substitution instance having true premises and a false conclusion. We begin by isolating the form of the argument:

premise

Chapter 2

Language: Meaning and Definition

2.3

Definitions and their Purposes

  • stipulative definition
  • lexical definition
  • precising definition
  • theoretical definition
  • persuasive definition

2.1

Varieties of Meaning

  • cognitive
    • pr: vagueness and ambiguity
    • → verbal disputes
  • not factual disputes
  • emotive
    • value claim (emotional clothing)

2.2

The Intension & Extension of Terms

intentional

attributes

extensional

members of the class that the term denotes

2.4

Definitional Techniques

  • Extensional (Denotative) Definitions


    • Demonstrative (ostensive) definitions
    • enumerative definitions
    • definition by subclass

  • Intensional (Connotative) Definitions


    • synonymous definition
    • etymological definition
    • operational definition
    • definition by genus and difference

2.5

Criteria for Lexical Definitions

  • Rule 1: A Lexical Definition Should Conform to the Standards of Proper Grammar
  • Rule 2: A Lexical Definition Should Convey the Essential Meaning
    of the Word Being Defined
  • Rule 3: A Lexical Definition Should Be Neither Too Broad nor Too Narrow
  • Rule 4: A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Circularity
  • Rule 5: A Lexical Definition Should Not Be Negative When It Can Be Affirmative
  • Rule 6: A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Figurative, Obscure, Vague,
    or Ambiguous Language
  • Rule 7: A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Affective Terminology
  • Rule 8: A Lexical Definition Should Indicate the Context to Which
    the Definiens Pertains

discovery and application of
scientific laws & ded and induc

sound

valid + all true premises

1.5

Argument forms: Proving Invalidity

  • argument forms determines invalidity
  • substitution instances of
    valid argument → always valid
    invalid argument → nearly always invalid, rarely valid

Counterexample Method

  • only for deductive arguments

1.6 Extended Arguments

  • horizontal patterns
  • vertical patterns

conjoint premises (geschweifte klammer)
= dependent premises


multiple conclusions (eckige klammer)

if the conclusion of an inductive argument is probably true, independent of the premises, it is weak

argument mapping

  • single argument
    1 reason OR objection
  • multiple or composite argument
    more than one reason or objection
    • more than 1 independent reason: convergent argument
    • dependent (co-) premises

chain of reasoning


  • Golden Rule:


    Each single argument really consists of two or more co- premises (this rule assumes that you need at least a co-premise to bridge


    the gap between the major premise and the conclusion; the rule invites


    you to identify minor assumptions).


  • Rabbit Rule

  • Holding Hands Rule
    ensuring connection between premises

if then constructions provide arguments with a warrant: a justification why a particular premise provides support for a particular claim

You can also see a co-premise
as a contention that bridges the logical gap between a premise and a conclusion.
In such cases we also speak of major and minor premises. The minor premise
points at an implicit assumption needed to justify the conclusion (also see the
description of the Golden rule further on).

non-argument

argument wants to prove something

  1. At least one of the statements must claim to present evidence or reasons.
    factual claim
  2. Th ere must be a claim that the alleged evidence supports or implies something—
    that is, a claim that something follows from the alleged evidence or reasons.
    inferential claim
  • simple non-inferential passages
    warnings, pieces of advice, statements of belief or opinion, loosely associated
    statements, and reports
  • expository passages
  • illustrations
  • explanation
    matter that is being dealt with is usually accepted as fact
    (whether this is the case might be inferred by the type of audience)
    purpose of the explanans is to shed light on, or to make sense of, the explanandum event—not to prove that it occurred. In other words, the purpose of the explanans is to show why something is the case, whereas in an argument, the purpose of the premises is to prove that something is the case
  • conditional statements

micro-analysis of text

  • conclusion markers
  • premise markers
  • suggestion by succession

Course Manual

till page 30

Exercises

1

signal words

2

Do these passages contain arguments?
If so, what is the conclusion?

2A

Beliefs are like apples in a basket. One rotten apple can contaminate a whole lot of others in the same basket. Similarly, one false belief can contaminate a lot of other beliefs, and make them unjustified. I conclude that a careful thinker should question all of her beliefs to make sure none are false. (freely adapted from Descartes)

3

Mapping simple arguments

4 pro

The following claim shows the conclusion of an argument. It is presented in the form of two alternatives. Select one of the alternatives for the conclusion and write down as many arguments as possible to support that conclusion:Violent video games should/should not be banned.

Primary school teachers should be paid better than university lecturers. The reasons for this are the following. The complex matter dealt with at universities requires students to have adequate ability in the basic skills of reading and writing. Several teachers hold that primary school teachers teach students in their most formative years, which are aptest for learning basic skills. This is why a primary school teacher’s job is more important than a university lecturer’s job. Also, people should be paid according to the contribution their job makes to society. And lastly, university lecturers are already overpaid.

counterargument

  • conclusion + 1 reason & 1 objection

dispute

  • conclusion, n+1 reasons & n+1 objections

3B

composite argument
convergent

Dutch is currently more important in Belgium than French

the number of Dutch speakers currently exceeds the number of French speakers in Belgium

the gross national product of Flanders is almost double that of Wallonia

3A

simple argument

there is a Flemish dominance in what was once styled ‘La Belgique’

the current number of French speakers in Belgium is only a little over four million whereas there are over 6 million speakers of Dutch in

3C

Initiatives to revise the allocation key, by the Flemish People’s Union deserve the support of the entire Belgian community

there should be a revision of the 1:1 allocation key for Flemish and Walloon citizens which is used for all important posts.

the number of Dutch speakers currently exceeds the number of French speakers in Belgium

3D

Contributions to relief organisations are often wasted

Food sent to war-torn countries rarely reaches its destination

[imp] contribution to relief are often food

food distribution is controlled by the warring groups

these groups sell the food to buy weapons and ammunition

3E

Most psychology students in Maastricht are highly satisfied with the academic level of the bachelor’s programme

a fairly large study of the daily Elsevier has shown

3F

the censorship of written materials is always wrong

[imp] anything that obstructs human advancement is wrong

any attempt to censor language will restrict human advancement

language is necessary for human advancement

language is necessary for communication

communication is necessary for the advancement of our civilisation

2B

Science does not provide a sufficient guide for human life, because it does not provide us with values. We need values to live our lives by.

2C

There is much evidence to suggest that cannabis has therapeutic uses for people suffering from conditions such as multiple sclerosis. Given this, the prescription of cannabis should be made legal. If doctors were legally allowed to prescribe cannabis, multiple sclerosis sufferers and others might be spared much pain. Moreover, if cannabis could be legally prescribed, it would be possible to conduct large-scale surveys to establish whether cannabis really is of benefit in such cases.