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Complex clauses (Coordination :one: (Syndetic / linked coordination (…

- - - - In English stylistically marked
      - In some languages - default method of coordination (Rapanui)
  - - - prepositive with the coordinator preceding the first unit (co(-)A B)
      - Most common: prepositive with the coordinator preceding the second unit (A co(-)B, also called medial prepositive)
      - Rare: postpositive with the coordinator following the first unit (A(-)co B, also called medial postpositive)
      - Rare: postpositive with the coordinator following the second unit (A B(-)co)
    - - Both prepositive: (co(-)A co(-)B)
        
        only as an emphatic alternative to the prepositive monosyndetic (A co(-)B)
      - Both postpositive: (A(-)co B(-)co)
        
        common in the Caucasus, North-Eastern Africa, Southern India, Papua New Guinea and Australia
      - Mixed: (co(-)A B(-)co)
      - Mixed: (A(-)co co(-)B)
    - - unlimited amount of units that get coordinated
      - Common to allow coordinator omission when >2 units are coordinated
        
        Most common: omit all but the last coordinator (as in Eng)
        
        omit all but the first coordinator
        
        Not all lang-s allow it
    - - :pencil2:all but one occurrence of the repeated material is deleted
      - Forward ellipsis, or analipsis / gapping, is when the 2nd of the coordinated units gets deleted (e.g. Mary bought a dress and John __ a hat.)
      - Backward ellipsis, or catalipsis / right periphery ellipsis, is when the 1st occurrence of the repeated material gets deleted (e.g. Mary loves __ and John hates romantic comedies.)
    - - Prepositive coordinators - precede the unit they are coordinating
      - Postpositive coordinators - follow the units they are coordinating
      - may be either free words or bound clitics
      - In some languages some coordinators can be prepositive and others postpositive (Khwarshi)
      - 44% of languages do not differentiate between "and" and "with"
  - - - disjunctive coordination (or disjunction) "or"
      - adversative coordination "but"
      - Most frequent - conjunctive coordination (or conjunction) "and"
      - causal coordination "for"
- - - - Matrix clause - a clause which contains an embedded subordinate clause, i.e. where a subordinate clause functions as a constituent. e.g. Mary told John that she saw him
  - - - can be replaced with one word
        
        Locative clause - function as place adverbs , introduced by a subordinator meaning ‘where’, e.g. Mary sat where she always used to sit.
        
        Time clause - gives information about the temporal sequence of events. May be indicated by a subordinating word (e.g. after) or a verbal affix (e.g. in Kamula)
        
        Manner clause - function as a manner adverb, indicated by a subordinate. marker (Peter felt* like he could fly) or take a form of a relative clause (Do it the way (that) I told you*)
      - cannot be replaced with one word
        
        Reason / causal clause - explains why an action or event took place. E.g. He had a snack because he was hungry.
        
        Circumstantial clause - express “the circumstances by which a given state of affairs comes to be”. Is rare. E.g. He got to the top by cheating in his work.
        
        Simultaneous clause - indicates that two events overlap, e.g. While he was jogging, he got a bright idea. In some lang-s - a special marker
        
        Concessive clauses - make a contrast between the matrix and the adverbial clause. E.g. Although she went to bed early, she didn’t feel rested the next day (definite concessive clause) and Wherever she went, she felt uncomfortable (indefinite concessive clause)
        
        Substitutive clauses - an expected event is replaced with an unexpected one, e.g. Henry had dinner at a restaurant instead of going home
        
        Additive clauses - express that one thing happened in addition to another, e.g. Besides being late for their date, he was rude to her
        
        Absolutive / participial adverbial clauses - to give a general background for the situation expressed in the matrix clause. E.g. Having nished the whole pot of honey, Winnie-the-Pooh contentedly licked his paws. Non-finite verb (!), sometimes called converbs.
        
        Purpose clause - expresses the purpose for an action. E.g. He went out to get groceries.
        
        Conditional clauses
        
        Reality conditional e.g. Present - If you know the poem by heart, you've learnt it. Habitual/generic - If it is raining, the soil gets wet. Past - If you saw the film, then you know how it ends
        
        Unreality conditional
        
        predictive situations (e.g. If he comes today, (then) we’ll have a party)
        
        Imaginative situations
        
        Hypothetical (e.g. If I were rich, (then) I’d build a castle)
        
        Counterfactual (e.g. If you had read the news, (then) you’d know what I’m referring to)
        
        The matrix of conditional clauses (the “then clause”), is sometimes called the apodosis, while the subordinate, the condition itself (the “if clause”), is sometimes called the protasis
      - :pencil2:Function as adjuncts to their matrix clauses, i.e. as non-obligatory supplementary modifications to the verb phrase or the entire matrix clause. E.g. Mary lives where the road ends
    - - English: restrictive (or defining) vs. non-restrictive (or non-defining) relative clauses. (rare distinction)
        
        The man who sported a chequered felt hat spoke to me (one out of several men) vs. The man, who sported a chequered felt hat, spoke to me. (purely descriptive)
      - The structure of the relative clause
        
        The matrix (the main clause)
        
        The head of the relative clause (NPmat)- the NP it modifies
        
        The restricting clause (Srel)- the relative clause itself
        
        May be flagged, or set off, by a relativizer (that)
        
        May contain a relativized NP(NPrel) - an overt element that is coreferential with the head (who).
        
        Strategies
        
        gap strategy(very common - 75,3%): "The man that __ waved at us seems familiar to me"
        
        May have a relative pronoun (who/whom) (7,2% of languages, European lang-s and Acoma) - is coreferential with the NPmat and functions as a relativizer
        
        Non-reduction - the head (re)appears as a full NP in the Srel, 14,5% of the lang-s (most of them in Americas): The man [I waved to the man] recognised me.
        
        3 subtypes
        
        Correlative clauses - the head NP also occurs in the relative clause, but there is an overt reference in the matrix (anaphorically with a pronoun or with the head NP). "[The girl she who is with you] she will die"
        
        Paratactic relative clause - contains the full-fledged head and is the same as an unmarked simple (declarative) clause, not overtly subordinate, loose connection [That woman just passed by us], she helped me activate the card.
        
        Internally headed relative clauses (internal relative clauses) - the head NP (NPmat) appears inside the relative clause and is not represented in the matrix. __ [The man gave me this] died.
        
        Pronoun retention - very rare, only in 5 languages (Niger-Congo family, Cameroon). "The man [that who he has beaten you] has come here"
        
        Headless / free relative clauses - the head NP is lacking altogether, the reference to the NPmat is in the Srel itself. [Whoever disturbs me], will get a scolding.
        
        Accessibility Hierarchy of Relativization: the further to the left, the easier to be relativized. subject - direct object - indirect object - oblique - possessor
      - The position of the relative clause
        
        Externally headed - 87,4%
        
        postnominal relative clauses, or NRel - 70,3% of all lang-s (incl. Eng)
        
        prenominal relative clauses or RelN - 17,1% of all lang-s (e.g. Turkish). Predominantly in Asia (except for SE Asia and Middle East)
        
        Internally headed - 2,9%
        
        Adjoined rel clauses - 1%
        
        Correlative rel clauses - 0,8%
        
        Double-headed res clauses - 1 lang (Kombai)
        
        :!: Unidirectional correlation with OV/VO features: VO + NRel (370 lang-s)
        
        Mixed system - 7,8%
      - :pencil2:Clauses that modify an NP, and are sometimes also referred to as adjective clauses
    - - Finite complements
        
        :pencil2: the complement clause is sentence-like (s-like)
        
        E.g. Robert said that the new teacher sings very well
        
        In some languages parataxis / apposition - the clause is simply juxtaposed (no complementizer)
      - Non‐ finite complements
        
        Infinitive complements - the verb is in its infinitive form, no syntactic relation to its notional subject. E.g. Mary tried to learn the poem
        
        Nominalized complements - the verb function as a noun, it the head of the NP. E.g. The king’s deer hunting gave entertainment to the whole court
        
        Participial complements - different from others: function as modifiers (adj or adv) rather than constituents. E.g. I smelled Mary baking a cake.
        
        :pencil2:Less independent and typically are not formally similar to a main clause. E.g. Mary likes to play with dogs
      - :pencil2:functions as an obligatory argument of its matrix clause, the matrix clause incomplete without it
- - - - Difference from serial verbs
        
        Switch reference - independent marker to indicate whether the following clause has the same or different subject :pencil2:
        
        Medial verbs are marked twice: for its own subject and whether the following clause has the same subject
        
        Not necessarily the same as verb agreement (verbs can be in agreement with their argument)
        
        In some lang-s - portmanteau markers(2 pronouns for 2rd person: 3p same subject and 3p different subject)
        
        Many languages - portmanteau markers for reference and temporal relation
        
        Chain clauses refer to a series of events --> often express temporal relations (simultaneity/sequentiality)
    - - two or more clauses clauses are jointly subordinated to a matrix in a chain, the latter being the clause that carries the TMA information
      - Most commonly matrix - the last clause in the chain, also called "final clause", but in some lang-s - initially (e.g. Logoti:Congo)
      - Other clauses - "medial clauses" - not embedded, but not independent, clauses or verbs chained together cosubordinately to form a structural narrative completed by the finite clause (matrix / reference clause)
  - - - Form a single clause - no overt markers of syntactic dependency
      - Share at least one argument in the clause
      - Refer to one single event
      - Share grammatical categories such as TMA, negation or person agreement
      - Behave as one single predicate (e.g. nominalizing or relativizing markers appear only once)
      - Form one intonational unit, - no pauses between the individual verbs (similar to monoverbal clauses - with only one verb)