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Personality Exam 1: Ch 1, Ch 2, Ch 9 (Chapter 1 : Intro (Three levels of…

- - - - :star: Psychological traits: characteristics that describe ways in which people are different from each other, but also can be used to describe similarities
        
        Describe the average tendencies of the person
        
        Ask 4 kinds of questions
        
        :grey_question:: How many traits are there?
        
        :grey_question:question: How are the traits organized?
        
        :grey_question: What are the origins of traits?
        
        :grey_question:: What are the correlations and consequences of traits?
        
        The Psychological traits are helpful because... :
        
        They help describe people and help understand the dimensions of difference among people
        
        They help explain behavior.
        
        They help predict behavior
      - Mechanisms :gear:
        
        :star: Psychological mechanisms: like traits, expect that the term mechanisms refers more to the processes of personality
        
        :bulb:Information-processing activity
        
        3 parts
        
        Inputs
        
        Decision rules
        
        Outputs
        
        :check::Does not mean that all our traits and psychological mechanisms are activated at all times. Only a few are activated.
      - :gear:Within the individual: personality is something that a person carries with him- or herself over time and from one situation to the next
        
        :check:Our personalities are certainly influenced by our environments, and especially by the significant others in our lives, we feel that we carry with us the same personalities from situation to situation in our lives.
      - :gear:Organized: psychological traits and mechanisms for a given person are not simply a random collection of elements. Rather, personality is organized because the mechanisms and traits are linked to one another in a coherent fashion
        
        :check:Psychological traits are also relatively enduring over time, particularly in adulthood, and are somewhat consistent over situations
      - :gear: Influential forces: personality traits and mechanisms can have an effect of people's lives
        
        Influences:
        
        Actions
        
        How we view ourselves
        
        How we think about the world
        
        How we interact with others
        
        How we feel
        
        How we select our environments (particularly social)
        
        Goals and desires in life
        
        How we react to our circumstances
      - :gear: Person-enviornment interactions :bar_chart:
        
        :spiral_note_pad: perceptions: refers to how we "see," or interpret, an environment
        
        :spiral_note_pad: Selection: the manner in which we choose situations to enter-- How we choose our friends, hobbies, college classes, and careers.
        
        :spiral_note_pad:Evocations: reactions we produce in others, often quite unintentionally. To some extent we create the social environment that we inhabit :sunrise_over_mountains:
        
        :spiral_note_pad:Manipulations: the ways in which we intentionally attempt to influence others (not necessarily in negative ways) :scales:
      - :gear: Adaption: the notion that a central feature of personality concerns adaptive functioning
      - :gear: Environment: includes social environment
        
        :speaking_head_in_silhouette:Intrapsychic environment: within the mind, not as objectively verifiable as our social or physical environment, is nevertheless real to each of us and makes up an important par of our psychological reality
  - - - Universals
      - :star: Human Nature: the traits and mechanisms of personality that are typical of our species and are possessed by everyone or nearly everyone.
    - - Particulars
      - :star: Individual differences: ways in which each person is like some other people
      - :star: Differences among groups: people in one group may have certain personality features in common and thesis common features make that group of people different from other groups.
    - - Uniqueness
      - :star: Individual uniqueness: self-explanatory but I digress. Every individual has personal qualities not shared by any other person in the world.
      - Nomothetic: as individual instances of general characteristics that are distributed in the population.
        
        :microscope: Research typically involves statistical comparisons of individuals or groups, requiring samples of subjects to which conduct research.
        
        :microscope:Typically applied to identify universal human characteristics and dimensions of individual or group differences
      - :star: Idiographic: (literally the description of one) Single, unique cases.
        
        :bookmark_tabs:Typically focuses on a single subject, trying to observe general principles that are manifest in a single life over time. (case studies)
  - - - :baby_bottle:Attempts to explain human nature across life span.
      - :book: Primarily of historical interest, which most theories are out of date and leave out the research going on today that are of interest.
    - - Cultural research shows that one major dimension of difference concerns whether individuals endorse a collectivistic versus an individualistic attitude.
        
        :silhouettes:western: collective
        
        :silhouette:eastern: individual
      - Criticized for containing too many in dependent area of investigation, with no sense of the whole b=person behind the separate topics of investigation.
      - Do not look at one perspective at one time and look at all.
  - - - This degree of specialization is reasonable
      - Dispositional domain: deals centrally with the ways in which individuals differ from on e another
        
        traits a person is born with and develops over time
        
        Cuts across all the other domains
      - Intrapsychic domain
        
        Processes within the person's own mind
        
        Deals with the mental mechanisms pf personality, many of which operate outside of conscious awareness
        
        Predominate theory is Freud's theory of Psychoanalysis
        
        Fundamental assumptions about the instinctual system
        
        Includes defense mechanisms, such as repression, denial, and projection
      - Biological domain: assumes that humans are, first and foremost, collections of biological systems, and these systems provide the building blocks for behaviors, thought, and emotion.
        
        Biological events
        
        Genetics, psychophysiology, and evolution
        
        Research is about genetics of personality
        
        Fair amount know.
        
        Psychophysiology pf personality
        
        Researchers summarize what is known about the basis of personality in terms of nervous system functioning.
        
        How evolution may have shaped human psychological functioning.
        
        Assumes that psychological mechanisms that constitute human personality have evolved over thousands of years because they were effective in solving adaptive problems linked to survival and reproduction.
        
        Sheds light on the functional aspects of personality
        
        Also personality of non-human animals
      - Cognitive-experiential Domain
        
        personal and private thoughts, feelings, desires, and other subjective experiences.
        
        Focuses on cognition and subjective experience, such as conscious thought, feelings, beliefs, and desires about oneself and others.
        
        Subjective experiences differ -I mean :information_desk_person::skin-tone-3:
        
        entails the self and self-concept.
        
        Pertains to the goals we strive for
        
        Entails emotions too
      - Social and cultural domain
        
        Social, cultural and gendered positions in the world
        
        Assumption is that personality is not something that merely resides with in the heads, nervous systems and genes of individuals, rather it affects and is affected by, the social and cultural context.
        
        Cultural level, clear that groups differ tremndously from one another
        
        Different cultures bring out different facts of our personalities in manifest behavior
        
        At the level of individual differences within cultures, personality plays itself out is the social sphere
      - Adjustment Domain
        
        adjustments that the person must makes to the inevitable challenges in life
        
        Refers to the fact that personality plays a key role in how we cope, adapt, and adjust to the ebb and flow of events in our day-to-day lives
        
        Personality is also linked with health-related behaviors, such as smoking, drinking, and risk-taking. Some research has even demonstrated that personality is linked with how long we live
        
        Important problems in coping and adjustment can be traced to personality
      - With in each of these we focus on two things
        
        the theories that have been proposed in each domain, including assumptions
        
        The empirical research that has been accumulating within each of these domains
  - - - Provides a guide for researchers
      - Organizes known findings
      - Makes predictions
  - - - Comprehensiveness
        
        Explain more empirical findings the better
      - Heuristic value
        
        Provides guidance in discovering new aspects
      - Testability
        
        Can it be tested empirically?
      - Parsimony
        
        Means assumptions
        
        less assumptions the better basically
      - Compatibility and integration across domains and lives
        
        Does this fit in with the rest of science and what we know?
- - - - Can be obtained through:
        
        Interviews
        
        Periodic reports
        
        Questionaires
      - Access to information that only the individual has access to
      - Most often asked in
        
        Unstructured
        
        Open ended or fill in the blanks
        
        Structured
        
        True or false, restricted answers
        
        Likert Rating Scale
        
        Numerical form the degree to which each trait term characterizes them (7-1 scale)
        
        :star:Personality scale: consists of summoning the scores on a series of individual rating scales
        
        Adjective checklist
        
        Self-report questionnaires in the form of statements
      - Weakness
        
        In order to be effective Respondents must be both willing and able to answers the questions
        
        People are not always honest, especially when asked about unconventional experiences.
        
        Some people may lack accurate self-knowledge
        
        One person gives information
    - - All da time: form impressions and make evaluations of others we come into contact with
      - :star:Def: capitalize on the se sources for gathering information about a person's personality.
      - Advantage
        
        Observers may have access to information not attainable through other sources
        
        Multiple observerscan be used to assess each individual
        
        Inter-rater reliability
        
        A more valid and reliable assessment of personality can be achieved when multiple observers are used
      - Selection of Observers
        
        :spiral_note_pad:Strategy one
        
        Obtain professional personality assessors who do not know the participant in advance
        
        data is collected for multiple days and in multiple circumstances
        
        Each observer provides an independent personality description of the participants
        
        Negative: cannot see target's natural behavior
        
        :spiral_note_pad:Strategy two
        
        Use individuals who actually know the target participants
        
        Example: close friends, spouses, mothers, and roommates
        
        advantage: such observers are in a better position to observe the target's natural behavior
        
        Multiple social personalities can be assessed
        
        :star:Multiple social personalities: different sides of ourselves are displayed to different people
        
        Negative: observer can be biased
      - Naturalistic verus Artificial observation
        
        :star:Naturalistic observation: observers witness and record events that occur in the normal course of the lives of their participants
        
        Ability to to secure information in the realistic context of a person's everyday life, but at the cost of not being able to control the events and behavioral samples witnessed
        
        :Star:Artificial: Obsercation takes place in contrived or artificial setting
        
        Participants are asked to perform a task
        
        The way a couple argues determines if the marriage will last or not
        
        Greater control over conditions and eliciting the relevant behavior, -- sacrificing the realism of everyday life
      - Not one way of either (1) professional assessors of intimate observers and (2) Naturalistic or an artificial setting is ideally suited for all assessment purposes
    - - The idea is to see if different people react differently to an identical situation. The situation is designed to elicit behaviors that serve as indicators of personality variables
      - Megargee researched dominance
        
        only 20% of the high dominate women assumed the leadership role
        
        High-dominiate women were appointing their low dom partners to leadership
        
        Women express their dominance in a different manner than the men
      - Limitations
        
        Some participants might try to guess what trait is being measured and then alter their responses to create a specific impression of themselves
        
        Difficult in verifying that the research participants define the testing situation in the same way as the experimenter
        
        Inherently interpersonal and a researchers may inadvertently influence how the participants behave
      - Remains valuable and irreplaceable source of personality information
        
        Can be designed to elicit behavior and control the context, and test specific hypotheses
      - Mechanical Recording Devices
        
        Actometer: used to assess personality differences in activity or energy level
      - Physiological Data
        
        Can provide information about a person's level of arousal, reactivity to various stimuli, and the speed at which he or she takes in new information
        
        Found that psychopaths who were in prison for violent crimes did not exhibit the faster eye blink response while viewing the anxiety-producing photgraphs
        
        fMRI used to ID the areas of the brain that "light up" when performing certain tasks
        
        Critical to know the resting state and the active state
        
        Hard for participants to fake responses
        
        Restrained to lab settings
      - Projective Techniques
        
        :star: The person is given a standard stimulus and asked what or he or she sees
        
        Inkblots developed by Hermann Rorschach
        
        Considered T-data because all personas are presented with a standard testing situation, all given the same instructions, and the test situation elicits behaviors that are thought to reveal personality
    - - :star: Refers to information that can be gleaned from the events activities and outcomes in a person's life that are available to public scrutiny
      - Uses S-data and O-data to predict L-data
      - For men, early temper tantrums were linked with many negative outcomes in adult life. The men who exhibited temper tantrums in childhood achieved significantly lower rank in their military service, erratic work lives, less likely to have a satisfying marriage
      - Can serve as an important source of real-life information about personality
  - - - How closely the findings obtained from one data source correspond to findings from another data source
      - Advantage: Each measure has unique idiosyncrasies that have nothing to do with the underlying construct of interest
      - Negative: whether the sources ar viewed as alternative measures of the same construct or as assessments of different phenomena
      - Summary
        
        Interpretation of links among the sources of personality data depends heavily on the research question being posed.
        
        Strong agreement between two sources of data leads researchers to be confident that their alternative measures are tapping into the same personality phenomena
        
        Lack of strong agreement may mean that the different data sources are assessing different phenomena, or that one or more data sources have problems
    - - Each data source has problems and pitfalls that limit its utility
      - Examine results that transcend data sources_ triangulation
  - - - Repeated measurement: Repeat a measurement over time
        
        Said to have high test-retest reliability
      - Examine the relationships among the items themselves at a single point in time
        
        If all correlate well with each other, high internal consistency reliability (asses within the test itself
      - Obtain measurements from multiple observers (apply only to observer based personality measures)
        
        If different observes agree with each other, high inter-rater reliability
    - - :face_with_rolling_eyes::star:Acquiescence: yea saying -People just freaking agree with the items no matter what the content is
      - :star:Extreme responding: refers to the tendency to give endpoint responses and to advice the middle part of response scales :scales:
      - Worry about the effects of response scales
        
        respones may not reflect the aspect of personality being measured
      - :star: Social desirability: tendency to answer items in such a way as to come across as socially attractive or likable
        
        It represents distortion and should be eliminated or minimized
        
        Does not assume that the person is consciously trying to create a positive impression
        
        Different from lying and faking
        
        A person's score on social desirability can be used to statistically adjust his or her scores on other questionnaires, thereby controlling for this response set
        
        Develop questionnaires that are less susceptible to this type of responding
        
        Forced-choice questionnaire
        
        Takers are confronted with pairs of statements and are asked to indicate which statement in each pair is more true of them
        
        Should be responding to the content of the item and hence provide accurate information about their pesoanilities
        
        Social desirability is a valid part of other desirable personality raises
        
        Work has been done to attempt to disentangle self-deceptiove optimism from impression management
        
        Some people may have a distorted view of themselves or a strong need for others to perceive them sell
    - - If the scale is widely applicable across these person and cultural contexts, the the sale is said to have high generalizability across populations of people
      - Different conditions
    - - Five types of validity
        
        :star: Face validity: refers to whether the test, on the surface, appears to measure what it is suppose to measure
        
        :star:Predictive validity: refers to whether the test predicts criteria external to the test (AKA criterion validity0
        
        Scales that successfully predict what they should predict
        
        :star: Convergent validity: refers to whether a test correlates with other measures that it should correlate with
        
        :star: Discriminate validity: refers to what the measure should not correlate with
        
        :star: Construct validity: a test that measures what it claims to measure, correlates with what is should correlate with, and does not correlate with what it is not suppose to correlate with
        
        Theoretical constructs
        
        Useful in describing and explaining differences one people
      - When a large number of known relations is built up around a measure, then begin to believe that the measure is credible as a measure of a specific personality construct
  - - - manipulation of one or more variables
      - Ensure that conditions are equal at the beginning of study
        
        Random assignment
        
        Counterbalaance
      - Order effects: consequence of being exposed to one condition first
      - Need significant difference
      - T-test: to calculate the difference between two means
    - - :star: Correlational method: a statistical procedure used for determining whether there is a relationship between two variables
      - :star: Correlation coefficient: gauging relationships between two variables
      - Cannot infer causation from correlations
        
        Directionality problem
        
        Third Variable problem
    - - :star: Case study method: Examine the life of one person in-depth
      - Findings based on one individual cannot be generalized to other people
      - Importnat sources of hypotheses and a means to illustrate a principle by bringing it to life
    - - Experimental: establishing causal relationships among variables
        
        Poor at IDing the relationships among variables as they occur in everyday life
        
        May be impractical or unethical to use
      - Correcational study: establishing the relationships between two or more variables in everyday life
        
        Bad at establishing causality
      - Case studies: Generating hypotheses that can be tested , ID patterns in an individual psychological functioning
        
        Cannot establish causality, nor ID patterns of covariation across individual as they occur in nature
        
        Cannot be generalized to groups
- - - - Operated according to law of conservation of energy
      - The amount of Psychic energy an individual posses remains constant through out their lifetime
      - Personality change was considered as a redirection of a person's psychic energy
    - - :star:Instincts: Innate forces that provided all the energy in the psychic system
      - Libido: life instinct
        
        Generally considered sexual but also refers to life-sustaining, or pleasure-oriented urge
      - Thanatos: Death instinct
        
        Any urge to destroy, harm or aggress against others or oneself
      - Originally thought they worked against each other, but later decided that they could work in harmony
    - - :Star:Conscious mind: the part that contains all the thoughts, feelings, and perceptions that you are presently aware of
      - :star: Preconscious mind: Any piece of information that you are not presently thinking about, but that could easily be retrieved and made conscious
      - :Star: Unconscious: unacceptable information hidden from conscious view so well that it cannot be brought to preconscious
    - - Nothing happens by chance or accident
        
        Even accidents are motivated by the unconscious mind
        
        Mental illnesses are caused by unconscious motivation
        
        Anna O
        
        This stupid hoe probably was dealing with very serious things because of her dad's death but Tweedle Dee and Tweedle Dumb got a hold of her, she was "cured" by hypnosis. Really she was dealing with sever depression and acting out. Damn woman I feel sorry for ya.
  - - - Maybe she was born with it, maybe it Maybeline... Nah we are born with it
      - Attempts to receive pressure at slightest occurrence
      - Operates via the pleasure principle: the desire for immediate gratification
      - Also the primary process thinking: thinking without logical rules of conscious thought or an anchor in reality
      - Wish fulfillment: Mental engird is invested in that fantasy of that object and the urge is temporarily satisfied.
        
        Not satisfied for long though
    - - Ego: part of the mind that constrains the id to reality
      - Develops within the first two years of vida :baby::skin-tone-6:
      - Reality Principle: the ego understands that the urges of the id are in conflict with social and physical reality
      - Works tp postpone the discharge of id urges until an appropriate situation arises
      - Engages in secondary process thinking: The development of strategies for solving problems and obtaining satisfaction
    - - Age five yo
      - Superego: part of the mind that internalizes the values, morals, and ideals of society (also self control)
      - CLOSE ALL THE VALVES AND LETS ADD MORE BITCHES :explode:
      - Makes us feel guilty and pride
      - AKA conscience
      - Not bound by reality and is free to set standards of self worth and virtue
    - - Internal conflict
      - lots of anxiety
      - You want no anxiety and balance of id and super-ego
  - - - Objective
        
        Fear
        
        Real external threat to the person
      - Neurotic
        
        Direct conflict between the id and the ego, the scare is that the ego may loose control over an unacceptable desire of the id
      - Moral Anxiety
        
        Caused by a conflict between the ego and the super ego
        
        Low self-esteem here
    - - Functions
        
        (1) to protect the ego
        
        (2) minimize anxiety and distress
      - Types
        
        Repression
        
        :star: the process of preventing unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or urges form reaching conscious awareness
        
        Primary for Frued, rest are mad e up by his daughter
        
        :star:Displacement: threatening or an unacceptable impulse is channeled or redirected form its original source to a nonthreatening target
        
        :star:Rationalization: involves generating acceptable reasons for outcomes that might otherwise appear socially unacceptable
        
        Classic in educated persons like college peeps
        
        :star:Reaction Formation: an attempt to stifle the expression of an unacceptable urge, a person may continually display a flurry of behavior that indicated the opposite impulse
        
        :star:Projection: Based on the notion that sometimes we see in others the traits and desires we find most upsetting in ourselves
        
        :star:False consensus effect: the tendency many people have to assume that others are similar to them
        
        :star:Sublimation: the channeling of unacceptable sexual or aggressive instincts into socially desired activities
        
        :star:Denial: insists that things are not the way they seem
        
        :star:Fundamental Attribution error: tendency to blame events outside of one's control for failure but to accept responsibility for success
        
        Refuses to see the facts
      - You know these are becoming a problem when;
        
        (1). begins inhibiting the ability to be productive
        
        (2) limiting the ability to maintain relationships
  - - - Occurs from birth till 18 months
      - Pleasure and tension reduction are mouth, lips, and tongue
      - Main conflict: Weaning, withdrawing from the breast of bottle
        
        Excessive pleasure versus dependency
      - Fixated outcomes: Sill obtain pleasure from "taking in" through the mouth [nail biting, thumb sucking, or pencil chewing]
        
        Will be fixated if there is a traumatic experience with the weaning process
      - Other conflict: biting
        
        Fixated on this and one could be hostile, quarrelsome, or mocking
    - - 18 months and 3 yeats
      - Pleasure form fist expelling feces and then during toilet training, from retaining feces
      - Conflict: self control
      - Too little control: grow up to be sloppy and dirty
      - Too much control: compulsive overly neat, rigid, and never messy
    - - 3 and 5 years old
      - Discovers that he has a penis or that she does not have the penis)
      - Awkaing of sexual desires
      - Oedipal Conflict
      - Castration anxiety: fear of losing his penis
      - He wants to identify and become like daddy
      - Penis envy: a lady type child desires her father yet at the same time envies him for his penis
      - Electra complex:for girls, never really resolved
    - - 6 until puberty
      - Frued believed that there was no psychological development here
    - - Puberty and till end of life
      - No conflict
      - Libido is focus on the genitals but not in the manner of self-manipulation associated with the phallic stage
  - - - Goal: to make the unconscious conscious
      - 1st identify the unconscious thoughts and feelings
      - 2nd enable the person to deal with the unconscious urges, memories, or thoughts realistically and maturely
      - :star: Free association: say whatever comes to mind
        
        Psychoanalyst must be able to recognize the subtle signs that something important has just been mentioned
      - Dreams
        
        Uncovering the unconscious material in a dream by intercepting the dream's content
        
        Manafest content: what the dreams actually contains
        
        Latent content: what the elements of the dream represent
        
        Deciphering dreams by use of symbols (unacceptable impulses and urges res presented)
        
        Dreaming serves three functions
        
        Allows for wish fulfillment and gratification of desires
        
        safety valve by allowing a person to release unconscious tension by expressing her or her deepest desires although in disguised form
        
        Guardians of sleep, no anxiety happening
      - Projective Techniques
        
        Projective hypothesis: the idea that what a person sees in an ambiguous figure reflects his or her personality
        
        Intreptaions are given at the end, and can change depending on person giving them
        
        insight: an intense emotional experience that accompanies the release of repressed material
        
        Resistance: the forces that have worked to repress the disturbing impulse or trauma now work to resist the psychoanalytic process
        
        Signifies that important unconscious material is coming to the fore
        
        Transference: patient begins reacting to the analyst as if he or she were an an important figure form the patient's own like. The patient displaces past or present feelings toward someone form his or her own life onto the analyst
        
        Idea behind transference is that the interpersonal problems between a patient and the important people in their life will be reenacted in the therapy session