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Behaviorist Learning (Criticisms (regardless of criticisms, use is GROWING…

- - - - Extinction = when conditioned stimuli no longer produces conditioned response
      - Generalization = anxiety is generalized to similar things
      - Neutral stimulus = object or event that doesn't initially affect behavior in one way or another
      - Discrimination = the opposite of generalization; process of giving different responses to related but not identical stimuli
    - - to form the association the unconditioned and conditioned stimuli must be CONTIGUOUS - occur at the same time
    - - personalize classrooms
        
        conditions feeling of comfort
      - require courtesy and respect of students
        
        conditions feelings of safety
      - show warmth and respect
        
        conditions feelings of safety
  - - - REINFORCEMENT increases behavior
        
        POSITIVE - increases behavior by presenting a reinforcer
        
        CONCRETE
        
        ACTIVITY
        
        PREMACK principle = a more desired activity can serve as a positive reinforcer for a less desired activity
        
        SOCIAL
        
        can be used for SHAPING
        
        reinforcement SCHEDULES
        
        CONTINUOUS = all desired behaviors are reinforced; yields fastest rates of initial learning
        
        INTERMITTENT = some are reinforced
        
        RATIO = depend on # of individual behaviors
        
        both can be either FIXED (predictable) or VARIABLE (unpredictable)
        
        INTERVAL - depend on time
        
        NEGATIVE - increases behavior by removing an aversive stimulus
        
        SATIATION occurs if a reinforcer is used so frequently that it loses its ability to strengthen behaviors
        
        EXTINCTION - the cessation of a behavior as a result of non-reinforcement - occurs if we don't reinforce behavior enough
        
        REINFORCERS
        
        PRIMARY = basic biological needs
        
        SECONDARY = learned, socially dependent
      - PUNISHMENT weakens behavior
        
        PRESENTATION punishment
        
        DESISTS - reduce or eliminated problem behaviors
        
        NON-EXCLUSION TIMEOUT - seating near teacher to remove reinforcers from other students
        
        DETENTION - sit quietly and do nothing to remove chance of positive reinforcement
        
        REMOVAL punishment
        
        RESPONSE COST - remove reinforcers already given
        
        ineffective punishments
        
        CORPORAL - cause student to demonstrate the same behaviors,
        
        EMBARRASSMENT / HUMILIATION - dampen interest in school; lower expectations for success
        
        EXTRA CLASS WORK - cause aversion to subject, then all subject, assignments, teachers and school
        
        OUT-OF-SCHOOL SUSPENSION - negatively reinforces by removing the aversive environment; increases likelihood of dropping out
      - ANTECEDENTS - stimuli that precede and induce behaviors
        
        PROMPTS & CUES - actions and questions used to elicit desired behaviors, usually in learning activities
        
        ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS - example: flipping light switch to remind students to be quiet
    - - REINFORCE students' accomplishments & behavior
      - use REINFORCERS & PUNISHERS appropriately
      - use ANTECEDENTS
      - use DRILL AND PRACTICE technologies
    - - helpful for students with exceptionalities who are disruptive
      - Steps
        
        Establish baseline
        
        choose reinforcers and punishers
        
        measure changes
        
        Identify target behaviors
        
        reduce frequency of reinforcers with improvement
        
        FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS - strategy to identify antecedents and consequences that influence behavior
        
        useful for creating effective interventions
        
        POSITIVE BEHAVIOR SUPPORT - replace problem behaviors with other, more appropriate behaviors serving the same purpose
- - - - COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION = self-talk and self-instruction to promote self-regulation - effective in student's with exceptionalities
- - - - CONNECTIONS IN THE INFLUENCE OF EXPERIENCE
- - - - PERCEPTION - process to find meaning in stimuli
        
        influenced by EXPERIENCES, MOTIVATIONS & EXPECTATIONS
        
        are PERSONAL
        
        enter WORKING MEMORY
      - ENCODING = represent in LONG-TERM MEMORY
        
        ORGANIZATION - help with charts, hierarchies, models, outlines, also graphs, tables, flowcharts, maps; MUST MAKE SENSE TO WORK!!!!
        
        ELABORATION
        
        EXAMPLES & ANALOGIES
        
        MNEMONICS
        
        METHOD OF LOCI - imagery is combined with locations of a familiar environment
        
        PEG-WORD METHOD - memorize "pegs" to "hang" information on
        
        LINK METHOD - visually link items
        
        KEY-WORD METHOD - imagery and rhyming words
        
        FIRST-LETTER METHOD - creates word from first letter of items
        
        SCHEMA ACTIVATION - ask what they already know
        
        IMAGERY - forming mental pictures of an idea
        
        DUAL-CODING THEORY - ideas that can be represented visually AND verbally are easier to remember because of long-term memory's two memory systems ( verbal and images)
        
        use PICTURES & DIAGRAMS
        
        ask students to form mental pictures
        
        ask students to draw their own diagrams
        
        REHEARSAL
        
        MAINTENANCE rehearsal - repeating information over and over
        
        ineffective for long-term memory
        
        ELABORATIVE rehearsal - relates new information to other information making it more easily retrieved
      - ATTENTION - focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others
        
        limited in capacity and duration
        
        we're easily distracted
        
        MULTI-TASKING influences attention; prevalent because of technology
        
        teach METACOGNITIVE skills to offset
      - RETRIEVAL - pulling info from LTM back to WM for further processing
        
        depends on context and how we originally encoded the info
        
        FORGETTING - the loss of OR inability to retrieve info from memory
        
        INTERFERENCE - loss of info because something learned before or after detracts from understanding
        
        teach closely related ideas together to reduce interference
        
        use reviews to capitalize on schema activation
        
        meaningfulness is KEY!!
        
        PRACTICE to the point of AUTOMATICITY helps
      - accommodating diversity
        
        use rich examples to promote elaboration and meaningful encoding
        
        use students' experience to augment background knowledge of classmates
        
        ask what they already know
      - REHEARSAL - repeating information to keep it in WM or move it to LTM
        
        MAINTENANCE rehearsal = repeating information over and over; ineffective for long-term memory
        
        ELABORATIVE rehearsal = relates new information to other information making it more easily retrieved
      - CATALYSTS for effective processing
        
        use encoding strategies
        
        develop automaticity
        
        reduce cognitive load
    - - META-ATTENTION - knowledge and regulation of our attention
      - METAMEMORY - knowledge and regulation of memory strategies
      - RESEARCH FINDINGS
        
        depends on task difficulty
        
        can be improved with direct teaching and modeling skills
        
        plays essential role in classroom learning
        
        is independent of academic ability
    - - SENSORY
        
        1 second visual
        
        2-4 seconds auditory
      - WORKING - the CONSCIOUS component
        
        CENTRAL EXECUTIVE - controls flow, selects strategies, transfers to long-term
        
        words, sounds
        
        visual & spatial
        
        impaired in ADHD students
        
        PHONOLOGICAL LOOP -
        
        VISUAL-SPATIAL SKETCHPAD -
        
        holds 7 items at a time for max 10-20 seconds
        
        COGNITIVE LOAD - amount of mental activity imposed on working memory --- depend on 2 FACTORS
        
        complexity of the elements
        
        number of elements we must attend to
        
        reduce cognitive load
        
        chunking
        
        use distributed processing - combine verbal and visual!
        
        develop automaticity
      - LONG-TERM
        
        DECLARATIVE - knowing "what"
        
        SEMANTIC - facts
        
        EPISODIC - related to experiences; strong emotions make it strong memory
        
        organized in SCHEMAS - meaningful schemas equate to thorough understanding, reduce cognitive load, and creates places for more knowledge
        
        PROCEDURAL
        
        SCRIPTS - schemas for events
        
        PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE = "how-to"; it is IMPLICIT (can't recall or explain it) - GOAL is to reach AUTOMATICITY
        
        CONDITIONAL = knowledge of where and when to use declarative and procedural knowledge; it is IMPLICIT, CONTEXT is important
- - - - frequent quizzes and assignments to provide objective information about students' learning progress
    - - treat all students the same: call on them equally, give similar feedback, use same body language, assess them in the same way
- - - - DISADVANTAGES
        
        large number of exemplars = high cognitive load
        
        may store an incomplete set of exemplars or incorrect exemplars
  - - - EQUILIBRIUM is disrupted as a result of ideas that conflict with one's thinking, this disequilibrium is resolved by RECONSTRUCTING thinking to accommodate the new information
- - - - ALGORITHMS
      - HEURISTICS
        
        TRIAL AND ERROR
        
        drawing ANALOGIES
        
        MEANS-END analysis - uses sub-goals
    - - need enough BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
    - - related to experience
      - represented visually
      - in familiar terms
    - - do they make sense?
    - - uses central executive
      - with ill-defined problems start with sub-goals
  - - - environmental
        
        avoid social comparisons when assessing learning and increase the number of assessments
        
        help learners develop domain-specific knowledge
        
        create safe environment where students feel free to risk offering unique ideas
      - personal = divergent thinking
        
        requires domain-specific knowledge
        
        intrinsically motivated
  - - - experience and background knowledge
      - people's thinking
    - - SIMULATIONS
      - INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARDS
      - VIRTUAL EXPERIMENTATION
      - MANIPULATIVES - physical and virtual
      - to use successfully monitor students - don't intervene too soon or too late
    - - develop expertise with DELIBERATE PRACTICE and WORKED EXAMPLES
        
        components of DELIBERATE PRACTICE
        
        focuses on understanding and sense making
        
        systematic - frequent practice to overlearn
        
        goal directed
        
        in real-world settings
        
        extensive feedback
        
        WORKED EXAMPLES = problems with completed solutions
      - SOCIAL INTERACTION to engage students and monitor progress
      - present in REAL-WORLD CONTEXT and practice IDENTIFYING PROBLEM GOALS
      - encourage SENSE-MAKING
        
        model and emphasize sense-making
        
        have students make ESTIMATES
- - - - What is another example of this idea?
      - How is this topic similar to or different from the one in the previous section?
      - How does the idea relate to the other ideas I've been studying
    - - employs dual-coding (visual and verbal)
      - uses imagery in showing relationships
      - requires organization in preparing it
      - CONCEPTUAL HIERARCHY - one type of concept map that illustrates hierarchical relationships; ----- good for math & science
    - - GUIDED NOTES - teacher prepared handouts that "guide" students with cues combined with space for writing
  - - - BELIEF PRESERVATION = the tendency to make evidence subservient to belief - we want to PRESERVE our BELIEFS
      - CONFIRMATION BIAS - the tendency to focus only on evidence that supports our beliefs - we are BIASED toward evidence that CONFIRMS our beliefs
- - - - varying the contexts can promote TRANSFER
- - - - SOCIAL INFLUENCES in our lives
        
        We are BIOLOGICALLY HARDWIRED to MIMIC others (can be influenced POSITIVELY or NEGATIVELY)
        
        Social influences extend to our EMOTIONS
  - - - NEOCORTEX is the area of the brain that is associated with the complexities of social living
        
        NEOCORTEX = top layer of the brain responsible for higher levels of functioning
        
        SPATIAL REASONING
        
        CONSCIOUS THOUGHT
        
        SENSORY PERCEPTION
        
        (in humans) LANGUAGE
      - humans biologically NEED social connection
- - - - not possible if we simply EXPLAIN THE TOPICS