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ch. 6-7 (lysosomes, is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes (lysosomes…

- - - - microtubules, hollow rods constructed from a protein called tubulin
        
        each tubulin is a dimer made of two subunits
        
        the consists of two polypeptides, a tubulin and b tubulin
        
        microtubules grow in length by adding tubulin dimers
        
        microtubules shape and support the cell, guiding movement of organelles and separating chromosomes during cell division
  - - - with the centrosome are a pair of centrioles composed of nine sets if triplet microtubules arranged in a ring
  - - - nine doublets of microtubules arranged in a ring with two single microtubules in the center this called the 9+2 pattern
        
        this is usually in motile flagella and cilia
        
        nonmotile primary cilia have a 9+0 pattern which lacks a pair of microtubules
        
        they also share common structure such as a basal body which anchors the cilia and flagella in the cell
        
        dynein's are also a common structure which is a motor protein that drives the cilia and flagella to have bending movements
  - - - a network formed by microfilaments inside the plasma membrane (cortical microfilaments) help support cell structure
        
        the network also gives the outer cytoplasmic layer of the cells the cortex the consistency of a gel
        
        in some animal cells such as nutrient absorbing intestinal cells, bundles of microfilaments make up the core of microvilli that increase the cells surface area
        
        motility is another role that microfilaments are known for
        
        actin filaments & thicker filaments made of protein called myosin interact to cause contraction of muscle cells
        
        the unicellular eukaryote amoeba, their crawling movement are contraction brought by actin and myosin
        
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  - - - they are sturdy and play an important role in reinforcing the shape of the cell and fixing position of certain organelles
- - - - metabolic processes of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates, detoxification of drugs and poisons, storage of calcium ions
      - enzymes of smooth ER synthesize lipids, oils, and steroids and new membrane phospholipid
      - other enzymes detoxify drugs and poisons in liver cells
  - - - membrane of each cristae in the stack separates the internal space from the cytosol
        
        vesicles in the Golgi apparatus transfer material between parts of the Golgi and other structures
        
        Golgi has two sides, cis and trans face
        
        cis, on the same side located near the ER
        
        transport vesicles move material from the ER to the golgi
        
        vesicles bub from the ER adds its membrane & its contents of its lumen to the cis by fusing with the Golgi membrane
        
        trans, on the opposite side gives rise to vesicles that pinch off and travel to other sites
        
        Golgi dispatches products by budding vesicles from the trans face,
        
        it sorts the products and targets them for various parts of the cell
        
        faces act as receiving and shipping department
- - - - and the ability of membrane proteins to move where function is needed
    - - integral proteins, penetrate hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer
        
        have a majority that are transmembrane proteins, other integral proteins extend only partway in to hydrophobic interior
      - peripheral proteins, are not embedded into the lipid bilayer at all, they are appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane
    - - cell-cell recognition, the cell distinguishes one type of neighboring cell from another
      - it is also basis for the rejection of foreign cells by the immune system
      - cell recognize each other binding to molecules usually carbohydrates on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane
    - - small molecules and ions move across the plasma membrane in both directions
        
        sugars, amino acids, and other nutrients enter the cell and metabolic waste leaves
        
        cell takes in O2 for cellular respiration and expels CO2
      - permeability of the lipid bilayer
        
        nonpolar molecules, hydrocarbons, CO2 and O2 are hydrophobic. so they dissolve in the lipid bilayer w/ out help of membrane proteins
        
        polar molecules, glucose and other sugars pass only slowly through a lipid bilayer and even water a small molecule does not cross rapidly
        
        lipid bilayer responsible for a cell permeability
        
        proteins built into the membrane play key roles in regulating transport
        
        hydrophilic substances can avoid contact w/ the lipid bilayer by passing through transport proteins that span the membrane
        
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- - - - they play an important role regulating the entry and exit of proteins and RNA and also macromolecules
        
        the nuclear lamina are protein filaments that maintain the shape of the nucleus that mechanically support the nuclear envelope
        
        the lamina and matrix help organize genetic material so it functions properly
        
        there is also a nuclear matrix, protein fibers extending throughout the interior of the nucleus
  - - - complex DNA and proteins making up the chromosome are called chromatin
        
        a prominent structure within the nondividing nucleus is the nucleolus
- - - - forms seals around the cell, the junctions establish a barrier that prevents leakage
- - - - ATP supplies the energy for active transport
        
        ATP can power this transport is by transferring the terminal phosphate groups directly to the transport protein
        
        this induces proteins to change its shape in a manner that translocate a solute bound tot he protein across the membrane
        
        the sodium potassium pump, exchanges Na+ and K+ across the plasms membrane
  - - - voltage is created by differences in the distribution of positive and negative ions across a membrane
      - the cytoplasmic side of membrane is negative in charge relative to the extracellular side
    - - chemical force, ions concertation gradient
      - electrical forces, effect on the membrane potential on the ions movement
    - - main electrogenic pump of plants, fungi, and bacteria is a proton pump, which actively transports proteins (hydrogen ions H+) out of the cell
        
        the pumping of OH+ transfers positive charge from the cytoplasm to the extracellular solution
        
        by generating voltage across membranes, electrogenic pumps help store energy that can tapped for cellular work
- - - - staining or labeling cell components so they stand out visually
- - - - lower speeds the pellets consists of larger components
      - higher speeds pellet has smaller components
- - - - cytoplasm in this cell suspended in cytosol are a variety of organelles of specialized form and function
    - - they provide local environments supporting metabolic functions so incompatible process can occur simultaneously in a single cell
        
        plasma membrane and organelle participate directly in the cells metabolism b/c enzymes are built into the membranes
- - - - a cell increases in size the surface grows proportionally less than its volume
      - area is proportional to a linear dimension squared, volume is proportional to the linear dimension cubed
      - so a smaller object has a greater ratio of surface area to volume
- - - - inside the chloroplasts are sacs called thylakoids, they a stacked like poker chips and each stack is called a granum
        
        outside of the thylakoids is a fluid called the stroma, containing chloroplasts DNA and ribosomes as well as enzymes
        
        chloroplasts are mobile like mitochondria and other organelles, move around the cell along tracks of the cytoskeleton
  - - - the outer membrane is smooth, the inner membrane is convoluted with infoldings called cristae
        
        inner membrane divides the mitochondrion into two compartments
        
        1) intermembrane space, the narrow region between the inner and outer membrane
        
        2) mitochondrial matrix, enclosed by the inner membrane
        
        it contains different enzymes as well as mitochondrial DNA an ribosomes
        
        enzymes in the matrix catalyze some steps of cellular respiration
        
        other proteins functioning in respiration including the enzyme that make ATP are built into the inner membrane
        
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- - - - three types of endocytosis
        
        phagocytosis (cellular eating)
        
        a cell engulfs a particle by extending pseudopodia
        
        the vacuoles fuses with a lysosomes to digest the particle
        
        pinocytosis (cellular drinking)
        
        a cell continually gulps droplets of extracellular fluid into tiny vesicles, formed by infoldings of the plasma membrane
        
        receptor-mediated endocytosis
        
        binding of specific solutes to receptors triggers vesicle formation
        
        receptor proteins, receptor and other molecules from the extracellular fluid are transported in the vesicles
        
        emptied the receptors are recycled to the plasma membrane
- - - - develops by the coalescene of smaller vacuoles
        
        solution inside this vacuole is called cell sap, is the plants main repository of inorganic ions, includes potassium and chloride
        
        this vacuole plays a role in plant growth of plant cells, enlarging as the vacuole absorbs water
- - - - between primary walls of adjacent cell is the middle lamella a thin layer rich in sticky polysaccharides called pectin
        
        secondary cell wall between the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall
        
        secondary wall has a strong durable matrix that affords cell protection and support
- - - - substance will diffuse down its concentration gradient which the density of a chemical substances increases or decreases
        
        diffusion requires no energy, it is a spontaneous process
        
        passive transport does not have to expand energy for it to happen
        
        in osmosis the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
        
        water balance of cells without cell wall
        
        tonicity, the ability of a cell to gain or lose water
        
        animals cell doesn't have a cell wall, when immersed in a isotonic environment it remains stable
        
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        water balance of cells with cell walls
        
        plants, prokaryotes, fungi and protists
        
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