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Language (Gender and Language (Language Similarities and Differences by…

- - - - Men have been associated with the task-focused instrumental style of communication: clear and decisive
      - Women have historically adopted affective styles of speech that promotes smoothly functioning relationships
- - - - A way to shape and reinforce a child's personal identity
      - Powerful way to make a statement about cultural identity
  - - - Convergence: when two or more people feel equally positive about one another, their linguistic convergence will be mutual. But when communicators want or need the approval of others, they often adapt their speech to suit the others' style, trying to say the "right thing" or speak in a way that will help them fit in.
      - Divergence: Communicators who want to set themselves apart from others adopt the strategy of divergence, speaking in a way that emphasizes their difference from others
      - Linguistic intergroup bias: reflects whether or not we regard others as part of our in-group
    - - Demonstrative pronoun choice
        
        e.g. "these people want our help" vs "those people want our help"
      - Negation
        
        e.g. "It's good vs It's not bad"
      - Sequential placement
        
        e.g. Dick and Jane vs Jane and Dick
    - - "It" versus "I" statements
        
        e.g. It's not finished (less responsible) vs I didn't finish it (more responsible)
      - "you" vs "I" statements
      - "but" statements
      - questions vs statements
- - - - Not all linguistic symbols are spoken or written words
        
        e.g. sign language is symbolic in nature and not the pantomime it might seem to nonsigners.
    - - As with physical symbols, the place to look for meaning in language isn't in the words themselves but rather in the way people make sense of them.
        
        Problems arise when people mistakenly assume that others use words in the same way they do
        
        The key to more accurate use of language is to avoid assuming that others interpret words the same way we do. In truth, successful communication occurs when we negotiate the meaning of a statement
    - - Phonological rules govern how words sound when pronounced
        
        e.g. the words "champagne" and "double" are spelled identically in French and English, but all are pronounced differently.
      - Syntactic rules govern the structure of language - the way symbols can be arranged
      - Semantic rules deal with the meaning of specific words.
        
        e.g. "bike" are for riding and "books" are for reading
      - Pragmatic rules govern how people use language in everyday interaction, which communication theorists have characterized as a series of speech acts.
- - - - Equivocal language: have more than one correct dictionary definition
      - Relative Words: gain their meaning by comparison
      - Slang and Jargon: Slang is language used by a group of people whose members belong to a similar coculture or other group. Jargon --> the specialized vocabulary that functions as a kind of shorthand for people wit common backgrounds and experience
      - Overly Abstract Language: speech that refers to events or objects only vaguely - serves a second, less obvious function. At times it allows us to avoid confrontations by deliberately being unclear.
        
        To avoid these overly abstract language, use behavioral descriptions
    - - Confusing Facts and Opinions: Factual statements are claims that can be verified as true or false. Opinion statements are based on the speaker's beliefs
      - Confusing Facts and Inferences: Inferential statements - conclusions arrived at from an interpretation of evidence
      - Emotive Language: contains words that sound as if they're describing something when they are really announcing the speaker's attitude toward something
    - - Euphemisms: is a pleasant term substituted for a more direct but potentially less pleasant one
        
        e.g. full-figured instead of overweight
      - Equivocation: a deliberately vague statement that can be interrupted in more than one way