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Respiratory System (Respiratory Organs (Pharynx (Nasopharynx, Oropharynx,…

- - - - hard palate
      - soft palate
  - - - submucosa
      - c shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
      - mucosa
      - adventitia
  - - - each supplies an individual lobe of a lung
    - - subdivide repeatedly into smaller and smaller bronchi
    - - direct air from the trachea to the lungs
- - - - O2 enters, CO2 leaves
  - - - O2 leaves, CO2 enters
- - - - inspiration muscles contract
        
        diaphragm moves inferior and flattens out
        
        external intercostals-lifts the rib cage and pulls the sternum superiorly
      - thoracic cavity volume increases because of the actions of these muscles
      - the lungs are stretchy and move with the chest, intrapulmonary volume increases
      - intrapulmonary pressure decreases (now lower than atmospheric pressure)
      - Anytime intrapulmonary pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure, air moves down its pressure gradient into the lungs
    - - Inspiratory muscles relax
        
        diaphragm moves superiorly and becomes roundly
        
        external intercostals allow ribcage and sternum to descend
      - Thoracic cavity volume decreases because of the muscles relaxing
      - Intrapulmonary volume decreases
      - intrapulmonary pressure increases (now higher than atmospheric pressure
      - anytime intrapulmonary pressure is higher than atmospheric pressure, air moves down its pressure gradient and out of the lungs
  - - - measurement of how cohesive molecules are
        
        surfactant in alveolar fluid reduces surface tension by decreasing cohesiveness
    - - stretchiness of the storm- any condition that decreases lung compliance makes lungs more difficult to inflate, making breathing more difficult and exhausting
    - - slows or block air flow
- - - - each produce a detergent like material called surfactant
        
        surfactant: reduces the surface tension of alveolar fluid to prevent collapse of alveoli during expiration
        
        also secrete antimicrobial agents that function in innate immunity
  - - - these cells are why the alveolar surface of healthy individuals is sterile
  - - - special type of simple squamous epithelium
- - - - any disorder that increases the thickness of the respiratory membrane slows the rate of external respiration
    - - any disorder that decreases the number of alveoli decreases the rate of external respiration
- - - - increasing the rate of depth of respiration leads to increased ventilation, and release of more CO2
      - decreasing the rate and depth of respiration leads to decreased ventilation, and retention of CO2
  - - - located in carotid artery and aorta
        
        monitor changing levels of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and hydrogen ion (associated with pH) in the blood
    - - located in the walls of the fourth ventricle and brainstem
        
        monitor changing levels of hydrogen ion (pH) of the cerebrospinal fluid
        
        more influential of the two receptors, since the pH of the CSF changes more rapidly and easily than the pH of the blood