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Bacteria/Archaea (Adaptations (Cell Wall (Prokaryotes (capsules can shield…

- - - - sugar polymers cross linked by polypeptides
    - - Gram Positive
        
        bacteria have simpler walls with a large amount of peptidoglycan
      - Gram negative
        
        bacteria have less peptidoglycan and outer membrane of lipopolysaccharides
    - - capsules can shield pathogenic bacteria from the host immune system
      - fimbriae are hairlike appendages that allow them to stick to their substrate
      - Pili are longer than fimbriae--allow prokaryotes to exchange DNA
  - - - the ability to move toward or away from a stimulus
      - present in around half of all prokaryotes
      - Flagella
        
        the most common structures are used by prokaryotes for movement
        
        may be scattered around the surface or concentrated at one/both ends of the cell
        
        prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ in structure, mechanism of propulsion, and molecular composition
        
        bacterial flagella are composed of 42 different kinds of proteins
        
        evolved as existing proteins
  - - - infoldings of the plasma membrane
    - - most of the genome consists of circular chromosome
    - - smaller rings of independently replicating DNA called
- - - - movement of genes among individuals from different species
  - - - movement of genes between bacteria by phages
    - - prokaryotic cell taking up and incorporating foreign DNA from the surrounding environment
    - - genetic materials are transferred between prokaryotic cells
    - - cells containing F plasmid function as DNA donors during conjugation
    - - antibiotics kill sensitive bacteria, but not ones with R plasmids
- - - - unique to certain prokaryotes (i.e. Sulfolobus)
      - energy source - inorganic chemicals (NH3, H2S, FE2+)
    - - energy source - light
      - unique to certain aquatic and salt-loving prokaryotes (i.e. Chloroflexus)
    - - energy source - light
      - photosynthetic prokaryotes, plants, certain protists
    - - energy source - organic compounds
      - many prokaryotes, protists, fungi, animals, and some plants
  - - - Obligate anaerobes are poisoned by O2 and live by fermentation or use other substances other than O2 for anaerobic respiration
      - Facultative anaerobes can use O2 if it is present or carry out fermentation/anaerobic respiration
      - Obligate aerobes require O2 for cellular respiration
    - - Essential for the production of amino acids and nucleic acids in all organisms
      - Prokaryotes metabolize nitrogen in a variety of ways (i.e. Nitrogen fixation)
    - - Cooperation between prokaryotes allows them to use environmental resources they could not use as individual cells
      - occurs between different prokaryotic species in surface-coating colonies called biofilms
- - - - gram-negative bacteria including photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs, and heterotrophs
      - has anaerobes and aerobes
      - 5 subgroups
        
        Alpha
        
        closely associated with eukaryotic hosts
        
        hypothesized that mitochondria evolved from through endosymbiosis
        
        Examples: Rhizobium - forms root nodules in legumes and fixes atmospheric N2
        
        Beta
        
        nutritionally diverse
        
        other members include aquatic species and pathogens
        
        Nitrosomonas converts NH4+ to NO2-
        
        Gamma
        
        Autotrophic members including sulfur bacteria like Thiomargarita namibiensis
        
        some heterotrophs are pathogenic like salmonella
        
        Escherichia coli resides in the intestines of many mammals and is not normally pathogenic
        
        Delta
        
        Slime-secreting myxobacteria that produces drought-resistant "myxospores"
        
        Bdellovibrios - mount high-speed attacks on other bacteria
        
        Epsilon
        
        most species are pathogenic
        
        Campylobacter - causes blood poisoning
    - - parasites that live within animal cells
      - Chlamydia trachomatis causes blindness and nongonococcal urethritis
    - - Helical gram-negative heterotrophs
      - some are parasites like Treponema pallidum, which causes syphilis
    - - gram-negative photoautotrophs that generate O2
      - plant chloroplasts likely evolved from cyanobacteria through endosymbiosis
      - abundant components of freshwater and marine phytoplankton
    - - colony-forming groups like actinomycetes, which mostly decompose organic matter
      - solitary species including Bacillus anthracis, the cause of anthrax
      - Mycoplasmas (smallest known cells) lack cell walls