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SUSS PSY 207 STUDY UNIT 6 (CHAPTER 12.1 AND 12.2 Gender Roles and…

- - - - Gender roles— the patterns of behaviour that females and males should adopt in a particular society (social-based, gender role norms)
        
        Societal norms may generate gender stereotypes, overgeneralized and largely inaccurate beliefs about the characteristics of all males and all females
        
        Social-role theory suggests that differences in the roles that women and men play in society do a lot to create and maintain gender stereotypes.
        
        For example, men have traditionally occupied powerful roles in business. As a result, society paints a picture of man as being dominant and authoritative.
        
        The nurturer gender role (often female) is built on communality (or communion), an orientation that emphasizes connectedness to others and includes traits of emotionality and sensitivity to others
        
        The masculine gender role is agency, an orientation toward individual action and achievement that emphasizes traits of dominance, independence, assertiveness, and competitiveness.
        
        This focus of agency stems from the male brain’s tendency to systemize, or analyze and explore how things work
  - - - Biosocial theory of gender-role development, states that early biological developments influence how people react to a child, such social reactions have much to do with children’s assuming gender roles.
        
        i.e. The biosocial theory predicts that if a biological male were consistently labelled and treated as a girl, he would, by about age 3, acquire the gender identity of a girl.
      - Social learning theorists argue that children learn masculine or feminine identities, preferences, and behaviours through two processes.
        
        First, through differential reinforcement, children are rewarded for sex-appropriate behaviours and are punished for behaviours considered more appropriate for members of the other sex.
        
        Second, through observational learning, children adopt the attitudes and behaviors of same-sex models.
      - Kohlberg cognitive theory of gender typing has two major themes:
        
        Gender-role development depends on stage-like changes in cognitive development; children must acquire certain understandings about gender before they will be influenced by their social experiences.
        
        Children engage in self-socialization; instead of being the passive targets of social influence, they actively socialize themselves.
        
        Identity/stability/consistancy
        Kohlberg believes that children progress through three steps as they acquire gender constancy
        
        Basic gender identity is established by age 2 or 2½, when children can recognize and label themselves as males or females
        
        At around age 3—children acquire gender stability—that is, they come to understand that gender identity is stable over time. They know that boys invariably become men and girls grow up to be women
        
        When children achieve gender consistency and realize that their sex is also stable across situations. Now children know that their sex cannot be altered by superficial changes
- - - - Primary Emotions (0-6months) very young infants express distinct emotions in response to different experiences (i.e. Distress or Joy)
      - Secondary or Self-conscious emotions (18 months) on Upon developing self-awareness, the infant is able to conduct social comparisons between their behaviour and social standards (i.e. family/ preschool environment). They may display the self-conscious emotions that involve evaluating the self: pride, shame, and guilt
      - Emotion regulation—the processes involved in initiating, maintaining, and altering emotional responses.
        
        i.e. 18–24 months, toddlers will try to control whatever is upsetting them by, say, pushing a noisy mechanical toy away
    - - Difficulty in regulating emotions
        
        One reason is that adolescents experience more negative life events than children. Because they are experiencing more emotional arousal at a time when the executive control centres of their brains have not fully developed, they can also have more difficulty than adults regulating their emotions.
      - Contra-hedonic
        
        Adolescence displayed contra-hedonic- motives as thet, consciously or unconsciously appear to lean towards maintaining or enhancing their bad moods or dampen their good ones.
        
        Adults were the most “prohedonic” of all age groups, often reporting that they were trying to maintain positive affect and dampen negative affect
        
        Amalgamation of emotions
        
        Why do adolesence lean to wards bad mood?
        
        Adolescence often reported positive and negative emotions simultaneously and seemed to crave being able to combine the two, as in being afraid at a horror movie while enjoying the scary experience with friends,
    - - Socioemotional selectivity theory
        
        According to this view, the perception that one has little time left to live prompts aging adults to put less emphasis on the goal of acquiring information for future use and more emphasis on the goal of fulfilling current emotional needs. As a result, older adults narrow their range of social partners to those who bring them emotional pleasure.
      - Positivity effect
        
        Older adults also display the positivity effect: a tendency for older adults to pay more attention to, better remember, and place more priority on positive information than on negative information
      - Emotion regulation
        
        Emotional experiences of younger and older adults are quite similar however, older adults are skilled at emotion regulation, especially at achieving their main emotion regulation goal: maximizing positive emotions and minimizing negative ones
    - - Social referencing. At around 9 months, infants also begin to monitor their social circle for emotional reactions to stimuli and use this information to decide how they should feel and behave.
        
        Emotional display rules
        
        As children get older, they also learn about emotional display rules—Sociocultural rules specifying what emotions should and should not be expressed under what circumstances
        
        (i.e. crying at a funeral is socially acceptable but laughing at a funeral isn’t)
      - Emotional competence; the display of refined, characteristic patterns of emotional expression, greater understanding of emotion, and better emotion regulation skills.
        
        Early emotional competence is a good predictor of social competence
  - - - Bowlby's Attachment theory
        
        attachment is a strong affectional tie that binds a person to an intimate companion
        
        Attachments unfold through an interaction of biological (Nature) and environmental forces (Nurture) during a sensitive period early in life.
        
        The quality of the attachment between infant and caregiver
        shapes later development and the quality of later relationships.
        
        The capacity to form attachments is part of our evolutionary heritage.
        
        Evident through Imprinting, an innate form of learning in which the young will follow and become attached to a moving object (usually the mother) during a critical period early in life to ensure survivability.
        
        Internal working models of self and others are the mechanism through which early experience affects later development.
        
        Internal working models—cognitive representations of themselves and other people that guide their processing of social information and their behavior in relationships
    - - A peer is a social equal, someone who functions at a similar level of behavioral complexity—often someone of similar age
      - Peers are equals rather than powerful authority figures, they help children
        
        learn that relationships are reciprocal
        
        force them to hone their perspective-taking skills
        
        provide alternative perspectives on social cognitive and moral development
      - Social needs change as we get older
        
        The parent–child relationship is central up to about age 6
        
        Then children need playmates;
        
        Then they need acceptance by the peer group; and
        
        Then around age 9 to age 12 they most need intimacy in the form of a close friendship (Chumships).
- - - - Changes in play
        
        We can detect two major changes in play between infancy and age 5:
        
        it becomes more social,
        
        it becomes more imaginative
        
        Play Becomes More Social
        
        Parten classified the types of play engaged in by preschool children of different ages into categories arranged from least to most social
        
        Parallel play. Children play next to one another, doing much the same thing, but they interact little
        
        for example, two girls might sit near each other, both drawing pictures, without talking to each other much.
        
        Associative play. Children interact by swapping materials, conversing, or following each other’s lead, but they are not united by the same goal
        
        for example, the two girls may swap crayons and comment on each other’s drawings as they draw.
        
        Solitary play. Children play alone, typically with objects, and appear to be highly involved in what they are doing
        
        Cooperative play. Children join forces to achieve a common goal; they act as a pair or group, dividing their labor and coordinating their activities in a meaningful way
        
        for example, the two girls collaborate to draw a big mural.
        
        Play Becomes More Imaginative
        
        Pretend play - play in which one actor, object, or action symbolizes or stands for another
        
        Emerges when a child becomes able to use symbols to represent objects; around the age of 1 year
        
        Social Pretend Play - play in which children cooperate with others to enact sometimes very sophisticated dramas (i.e. play masa-masak)
        
        Rule-governed play School-age children engage less in pretend play and more in rule-governed play
        
        E.g. Board games, hide-and-seek, organised sports
        
        According to Piaget, this only occurs after children are in the concrete operations stage and are able to cooperate and follow rules
      - General types of play
        
        Object play (stacking blocks, making crafts)
        
        Social play (mutual imitation or playing board games)
        
        Locomotor play (games of tag or ball)
        
        Pretend play (enacting roles)
      - Functions of Play
        
        Engaging in lots of pretend play has been linked to better performance on tests of cognitive development, language skills and creativity
        
        Social pretend play helps children understand others’ perspectives and hone their social skills
        
        Physical play contributes to neural maturation and the development of motor skills
    - - Research has defined 5 distinct categories of social status:
        
        Neglected – neither liked nor disliked, isolated, invisible to peers
        
        Controversial – liked by many but also disliked by many
        
        Rejected – rarely liked, often disliked
        
        Average – in the middle on both liked and disliked scales
        
        Popular – well liked by most, rarely disliked
        
        Popularity is affected by:
        
        Physical attractiveness
        
        Intelligence
        
        Ability to regulate emotions
        
        Social competence
      - Importance of peer acceptance
        
        Peer acceptance and popularity are important to development:
        
        Children who are rejected (particularly because of aggressive behaviour) are likely to continue to be rejected over the schooling years
        
        May end up with poor adjustment as a result; low self-esteem, poor social skills, development of negative attitudes towards others
  - - - Sociometric popularity - being liked by many peers,
      - Perceived popularity - being viewed as someone who has status, power, and visibility in the peer group
    - - In early adolescence, the most popular boys and girls lead the way and form a heterosexual clique.
      - As less popular teens also form mixed-sex cliques of their own, a new peer-group structure, the crowd, completes its evolution during the high school years. The crowd (i.e. a loose collection of heterosexual cliques with similar characteristics) provides a vehicle for socializing with the other sex through organized social gatherings such as parties.
      - Boy cliques and girl cliques then begin to interact. Just as parents provide a secure base for peer relationships, same-sex cliques provide a secure base for romantic relationships.
      - As more and more couples form and the crowd disintegrate in late high school, having served its purpose of bringing boys and girls together.
      - In late childhood, boys and girls become members of same-sex cliques, or small friendship groups, and have little to do with the other sex.
    - - Greater social competence
      - Better emotional adjustment
      - Higher self-esteem
      - Fewer behavioural problems
      - Stronger sense of identity
    - - Status phase. In mid-adolescence, peer approval is what counts; having a romantic relationship, and having it with the “right kind” of partner, is important for the status it brings in the larger peer group
      - Affection phase. In late adolescence, the focus is finally on the relationship rather than on self-concept or peer status. Romantic relationships become more personal and caring.
      - Initiation phase. In early adolescence, the focus is on self-concept. That is, coming to see oneself as a person capable of a romantic relationship. This is a time of crushes, posturing, and awkward beginnings.
      - Bonding phase. In the transition to emerging adulthood, the emotional intimacy achieved in the affection phase may be coupled with a long-term commitment to create a lasting attachment.
  - - - Strange Situation
        
        A procedure for measuring the quality of an attachment developed by Ainsworth.
        
        It consists of eight episodes that gradually escalate the amount of stress infants experience as they react to the approach of an adult stranger and two departures and returns of their caregiver
      - 1. Secure attachment
        
        The securely attached infant:
        
        proximity maintenance - stays close and continuously monitors the caregiver’s whereabouts
        
        safe haven - retreats to her for comfort if needed
        
        separation distress - resists and is distressed by separations from her
        
        secure base - explores happily as long as caregiver is present and attentive
        
        Infants may have parents who are sensitive and responsive to their needs and emotional signals
      - 2. Insecure attachments
        
        2b. Avoidant attachment
        
        Infants with avoidant attachments are not very adventuresome, shows little apparent distress/separation anxiety when separated from their mothers, and avoid contact or seem indifferent when their mothers return.
        
        not particularly wary of strangers but sometimes avoid or ignore them, much as these babies avoid or ignore their mothers.
        
        Poor emotional competency - avoidant infants seem to have shut down their emotions and distanced themselves from their parent.
        
        Infants may have parents who tend to provide too much or too little stimulation; either unresponsive or overzealous
        
        2c. Disorganized-disoriented attachment
        
        Emotional/behavioural responses appear to be confused.
        
        Does not display consistent traits of the other attachment styles.
        
        associated with later emotional problems
        
        common in infants who have been physically abused, or whose mothers are severely depressed or on drugs/alcohol
        
        2a. Anxious/Ambivalent attachment or Resistant attachment
        
        The resistant infant does not dare venture off to play even when her mother is present; her mother does not seem to serve as a secure base for exploration.
        
        The infant becomes distressed when her mother departs, often showing strong separation anxiety.
        
        The infant is ambivalent, Not easily comforted by her mother.
        
        Resistant infants are also wary of strangers, even when their mothers are present
        
        Infants may have parents who are inconsistent in their caregiving; e.g. mood-dependent, unresponsive parents
    - - Later Development of Securely and
        Insecurely Attached Infants
        
        Emotion regulation. Secure attachment in infancy is also linked to good emotion regulation and coping skills
        
        Social competence. Children who had been securely attached as infants are more able to initiate play activities, are more sensitive to the needs and feelings of other children, and are more popular and socially competent
        
        Intellectual competence. Children who were securely attached as infants are described by teachers as more curious, self-directed, and eager to learn than insecurely attached children
      - Effects of Social Deprivation
        
        Recovering from seperation
        
        Infants who go through long-term or permanent separation from a caregiver usually recover
        
        once reunited with the caregiver or
        
        if the infant is able to maintain or form an attachment with someone else
        
        Prolonged deprivation
        
        However, children who had spent 6 months or more deprived from caregiver settings rarely achieved normal levels of cognitive development.
        
        Such children tended to be:
        
        emotionally withdrawn
        
        indiscriminately friendly (disinhibited attachment)
        
        or both
    - - Caregiver’s Attachment to the Infant
        
        Parents often begin to form emotional attachments to their babies even before they are born.
        
        Synchronised routines
        
        Over time, caregivers and infants develop synchronised routines in which they take turns to respond to each other’s leads.
        
        E.g. Mother and infant play “peekaboo”, mother sits back and watches when
        infant is no longer interested, re-engages when infant looks at her again
        
        Achieving synchrony between parent and infant makes secure attachment more likely
        
        Caregiver’s Contributions to Attachment
        
        Contact Comfort: According to Harlow, contact comfort are pleasurable tactile sensations provided by a more powerful contributor to attachment.
        
        It also promotes human attachments; (As per Harlow’s experiment, feeding has little effect on the quality of infants’ attachments)
      - Infant’s Attachment to the Caregiver
        
        According to Ainsworth and Bowlby, infants progress through four phases in forming attachments
        
        2. Discriminating social responsiveness
        
        (2 or 3 months to 6 or 7 months)
        
        Infants begin to show preferences for familiar companions.
        
        Still friendly, but exceptionally enthusiastic with familiar companions.
        
        3. Active proximity seeking or true attachment
        
        (6 or 7 months to about 3 years)
        
        infants form their first clear attachments to the primary care-giver.
        
        Proximity-seeking behaviour (i.e. seen crawling/following their primary care-giver)
        
        1. Undiscriminating social responsiveness
        
        (birth to 2-3 months)
        
        Responsive to and interested in any human, no clear preference for one person
        
        4. Goal-corrected partnership
        
        (3 years and older)
        
        Takes into account parent’s goals and plans, adjusts behaviour to achieve the goal of optimal proximity
        
        i.e. 1-year-old cries and tries to follow when Dad leaves for work, whereas a 4-year-old can understand where Dad is going and wait for his return
      - Attachment-Related Fears
        
        Separation Anxiety
        
        Appears when infants are forming their first true attachments, peaks between 14-18 months of age before gradually declining
        
        Once attached to a parent, baby often becomes fretful when separated from that parent
        
        Stranger Anxiety
        
        Emerges shortly after attachment is formed
        
        Wary or fretful reaction to the approach of an unfamiliar person
        
        Common between 8 and 10 months of age and declines during the second year of life
      - Exploratory Behavior
        
        Attachment to a caregiver also has the
        positive effect of facilitating exploratory behavior
        
        Attachment figure
        serves as a:
        
        Secure base for exploration—a point of safety from which an infant can feel free to venture
        
        Safe haven to which the infant can return for comfort if frightened
- - - - Partner Choice
        
        The greatest influence on mate selection is similarity, or homogamy.
        
        Once homogamy is assured, people may also look for complementarity— i.e. look for partners who are different from them but who have strengths that compensate for their own weaknesses or otherwise complement their own characteristics.
      - Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Love
        
        Stenberg identifies different types of love based on the strength of three components:
        
        Sternberg’s Triarchic components
        
        Intimacy involves feelings of warmth, caring, closeness, trust, and respect in the relationship.
        
        Decision/ Commitment
        
        Commitment involves first deciding that one loves the other person and then committing to a long-term relationship.
        
        Passion involves sexual attraction, romantic feelings, and excitement.
        
        Sternberg's types of love
        
        There are different types of love depending on whether each of the three components of love are high or low
        
        Consummate love – high levels of passion, intimacy, and decision/commitment
        
        Companionate love – high intimacy and commitment but not much passion
    - - Despite the shrinkage of social networks, older adults are satisfied with their emotional lives
        
        Two theories can explain this:
        
        Socioemotional selectivity theory
        
        According to this view, the perception that one has little time left to live prompts aging adults to put less emphasis on the goal of acquiring information for future use and more emphasis on the goal of fulfilling current emotional needs. As a result, older adults narrow their range of social partners to those who bring them emotional pleasure.
        
        Positivity effect
        
        Older adults also display the positivity effect: a tendency for older adults to pay more attention to, better remember, and place more priority on positive information than on negative information
    - - Preoccupied attachment style
        
        Develop from resistant attachment as a child.
        
        Desperate for love to feel worthy as a person; worry about abandonment; express anxiety and anger openly
        
        High anxiety, low avoidance
      - Dismissing attachment style
        
        Develop from avoidant attachment as a child.
        
        Shut out emotions; defend against hurt by avoiding intimacy, dismissing the importance of relationships, and being “compulsively self-reliant”
        
        Low anxiety, high avoidance
      - Secure attachment style
        
        Develope from Secure attachment style (during childhood period)
        
        Healthy balance of attachment and autonomy; freedom to explore
        
        Low anxiety, low avoidance
      - Fearful attachment style
        
        Develop from disorganized–disoriented attachment as a child.
        
        Need relationships but doubt own worth and fear intimacy; lack a coherent strategy for meeting attachment needs
        
        High anxiety, high avoidance