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Theory of Knowledge (Language (Language is intended (Body langyuage…

- - - - grammar
        
        the rules for constructing meaningful phrases and sentences
      - vocabulary
        
        also governed by arbitrary rules
        
        For communication to work there has to be a general agreement withing the linguistic community
    - - the word loses its meaning- this is attributed to the way your brain is wired to work
      - When you learn a word, your brain remembers it by making connections between certain neurons and generates a pattern
      - When you repeat the word, the neurons are repeatedly fired
      - Everytime you recal the word the same neurons are fired to recreate the same pattern
      - This causes something called reactive inhibition, when the brain just gets fed up and stops trying to react to the word
    - - reciprocity (fairness)
      - empathy (compassion)
    - - emotional (body) channel
        
        synchrony, motor mimicry, emotional contagion
      - cognitive channel
        
        self-others distinction and perspective taking
  - - - Conscious or unconscious body movements and positions that communicate our attitudes and feelings
  - - - Denotation
        
        literal meaning of the word; meaningful words are found in the world; they stand for something
      - Image theory
        
        The meaning of a word is the mental image it stands for: you have an image in your mind
        
        criticism
        
        if meanings are in our minds we cannot be sure that others understand our meanings
      - Definition
        
        some definitions are vague and imprecise. Defining a word with another word, with another word, etc.
      - Definitions/ rules
        
        ambiguity
        
        many words and phrases could have more than one meaning. Punctuation often creates confusion.
        
        euphemism
        
        Idioms, mistranslations, untranslatable words, body language
        
        used to change the impact of certain words, and make them more socially acceptable.
        example: bathroom, lavatory, toilet, WC
        death, passed away, kicked the bucket
        
        connotation
        
        The ideas and associations a word evokes in addition to its literal meaning.
        
        commonly employed by the authorities to make government policies more acceptable, or by groups seeking to either justify themselves, or rubbish their opponents.
        Ex. collateral damage vs. innocent loss of life
        firing vs. letting someone go
        euthanasia vs. killing
        
        metaphor
        
        A figure of speech which makes an implicit comparison between 2 things
        ex. my brother is a butcher- literal interpretation
        my dentist is a butcher- metaphorical interpretation
        
        Irony
        
        A figure of speech in which words are used to say one thing and can meant the opposite
        ex. any more bright ideas Einstein?
        
        Idioms
        
        a colloquial expression whose figurative meaning cannot be deciphered from its literal meaning
        ex. it's raining cats and dogs
        i', all ears
        out of sight out of mind
  - - - The translation should be true to the original text
    - - The translation should be understandable
    - - the translation back to its original should be approximately similar
  - - - whatever language we speak, we still perceive the world in the same way
        (Noam Chomslay)
    - - different languages lead to different perceptions of reality, leading cultures to behave distinctively according to what words and phrases they use to label the world.
- - - - stimulus --> feeling --> arousal
    - - stimulus--> arousal --> feeling
    - - emotions spread across a group
      - the tendency for emotions such as anger to pass/ spread quickly through a crowd
  - - - Usually considered to not be easily influenced by cultures
      - more easily associated with facial expressions
      - Universal
    - - more difficulty associating to expressions (facial)
      - more easily influenced by culture
      - complex emotions made by mixing primary emotions
  - - - illusory but self-confirming belief system. We typically judge risks by consulting our feelings rather than statistics
      - risk assessment; rationalization
        Aristotle defined man as a rational animal
      - factors which trigger the emotion of fear irrespective of whether it is justified
        
        evolutionary past
        
        the unknown- usually we feat more unfamiliar risks
        
        control- usually we fear less the things that we can control
        
        Immediacy- the greater fear to immediate threats than more distance gradual ones.
        ex. sunbathing vs terrorist attacks
        
        salience- the extent to which a risk sticks in our mind and is easy to remember; Media
      - most emotions are short-sighted and easily blind us to longer term consequences.
      - our emotions can lead us to making poor decisions
    - - emotions may distort our perceptions
        
        no emotions= no problems?
      - stoicism
        
        a philosophy of life which advocates the control and subjugation of ones emotions
      - apathy
        
        a state of mind advocated by stoic philosophers which literally means "without passion"
        
        studies of brain-damaged patients have shown that without emotion our life quickly disintegrates
        
        Demasio speculates that emotions help us to make rational decisions
    - - negativity bias
      - ex. love is blind; loving someone vs hating someone; happy mood vs. sad mood
      - You are more upset with bad grades than you are pleased with good ones. You dwell longer on criticism then praise. You dislike losing 1000$ then you like winning it.
      - others focus more on the positives of those they like, rather than the negatives. the reverse for those they don't like
      - factors
        
        sutuational
        
        we most often blame outside factors for our own shortcomings. we lost because ... not because we are bad at the activity.
        
        Dispositional
        
        we are more likely to blame others of character flaws. Their own short comings or victories are due to their personality
      - Fundamental attribution error
        
        focusing too much on dispositional factors rather than situational factors when explaining someones behavior.
    - - emotional illumination
        
        emotions can illuminate our perceptions
      - rational emotions
        
        emotions can supplement our reason
      - source of values
        
        emotions can ground our values
- - - - Touch
      - Smell
      - Sight
      - Sound
      - Taste
    - - sense of balance
    - - awareness of stimuli originating out of the body.
      - ex. respiration, hunger, heart rate, etc.
    - - awareness of temperature
    - - awareness of your limbs in space
  - - - Raw uninterpreted perceptual info which floods into our sense from the world around us.
    - - Interpreted info provided by our minds.
  - - - Expectations
        
        Our expectations can influence how we see things. When you don't expect to see two of the same words you don't, same with misspelled words.
      - Visual grouping
        
        The tendency to group sensory data together and see them as shapes and patterns
      - Illusions and other senses, as well as WOKs
        
        Synesthesia, an unusual condition in which 2 or more sense we normally experience separately are experienced together.
        
        drawing Bouba vs. Kiki
      - Figure and ground
        
        When we look at something we highlight aspects and negate other parts of the background
      - The role of the unconsious
        
        Unconcsious interpretation constantly makes unconsious references.
        
        ex. Visual agnosia- lose the ability to interpret what you see.
      - Context
        
        The way we see something often depends on the context we see it in. answer lies in perspective.
    - - Emotion
      - Culture
        
        Asians tend to peceive things more nolistically. Westerners tend to focus more on individual objects.
        Vision- faces
        Sound- pronunciation
      - Interests
        
        As the pattern of our interests change so does what we tend to notice
      - Change Blindness
        
        The tendency not to notice what, retrospectively, seems to be obvious changes in our environment.
        
        video with basketball passes and moon-walking bear.
- - - - questions about a subject
      - ex. how certain is scientific knowledge?
    - - ex. is the universe expanding?
      - questions about topics within a subject
- - - - ex. I believe that tomatos cure cancer, i don't know why i believe this, and i can abandon it if met with counter evidence.
    - - Ex. I believe that John killed Smith, I can provide evidence to support it. But i'm unwilling to say that i know this.
    - - Ex. I have found evidence, to support the fact that Americans landed on the mood, so strong, and the opposing evidence so flimsy, that i am willing to say that my belief is true.
- - - - Fantasy
        
        It's easy for our minds to confuse the distinction between wanting something to be true and believing something is true. Wishful thinking can explain this, why people rate themselves highly in positive traits such as cheerfulness, and low in undesirable traits such as selfishness. Popularity of pseudo-science and conspiracy theories.
        
        wishful thinking= convincing yourself that something is true simply because you want it to be true.
      - Peer pressure
        
        We care about what others think and our beliefs are strongly influenced by our peers. We can do morally wrong things, like download music illegally since "everybody is doing it." We read things that reflect our prejudices and associate with people who share our opinions. When we overestimate the extent to which others s«think as we do, this is called the false consensus effect.
      - Apathy
        
        Once we have formed an opinion about something we are reluctant to change our minds. We are attached to our beliefs partly because they are familiar and partly because they reflect our identity. We prefer "common sense" falsehoods to complex, difficult to understand, truths.
      - Bias
        
        It's difficult to resist the feeling that our way of looking at the world is uniquely perceptive and insightful. We want others to think like us. We can spot bias and errors in the work of others but are blind to our own shortcomings.
      - Ignorance
        
        We are all ignorant, no one can know everything. If we are ignorant to our ignorance we become over confident in the belief that we know more than we actually do. We are surprised to know that our knowledge is superficial and that we have experienced the illusion of explanatory depth.
  - - - Group think
        
        a form of peer pressure which leads everyone in a group to think in the same way.
      - Power distortions
        
        Governments and corporations sometimes have a vested interest in influencing our beliefs and values. Data may be exaggerated to influence us. Regimes may resort to censorship and systematic indoctrination to ensure that people know only what they want them to know.
      - Authority worship
        
        We blindly believe what we're told simply because someone with authority has said it.
      - Fragmentation
        
        Professionals struggle to keep up with new information. The result is that depth is increasingly bought at the expense of breadth