Chapter 17: Gene Expression: From Gene to Protein

Concept 17.1 Genes Specify Proteins Via Transcription and Translation

Gene Expression

Process where DNA directs synthesis of proteins

2 Stages

Translation

Transcription

Evidence from Studying Metabolic Defects

Garrod - suggested genes dictate phenotypes through enzymes, proteins that catalyze specific chem reactions in the cell

"inborn errors of metabolism"

One gene-One enzyme hypothesis

Garrod's hypothesis that a gene dictates the production of a specific enzyme

Cells synthesize and degrade most organic molecules thru metabolic pathways

Drosophila

each mutation affecting eye color blocks pigment synthesis at a specific step preventing enzyme production

Nutritional Mutants in Neurospora: Scientific Inquiry

change in a mutants phenotype

X rays where known to cause mutations

wild type neurospora has modest food requirements

17.2

Minimal medium - wild type mold cells use their metabolic pathways to produce moleules for growth

17.3

Basic Principles of Transcription and Translation

genes give instructions for making specific proteins

gene DOES NOT build a protein directly

bridge bt DNA and protein synthesis is the nucleic acid RNA

DNA - A, G, C, T

RNA - A, G, C, U

In DNA/RNA, monomers are the 4 types of nucleotides that differ in nitrogenous bases

Transcription

synthesis of RNA using info in the DNA

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

carries genetic message from DNA to protein synthesis machinery of the cell

Translation

synthesis of a polypeptide using the info in mRNA

change in language

cell must translate nucleotide sequence of mRNA into amino acid sequence of a polypeptide

Ribosomes

sites of translation

molecular complexes that facilitate the orderly linkage of amino acids in to polypeptide chains

17.4

Primary Transcript

initial RNA transcript form any gene, even specifying RNA that isn't translated into protein

DNA ---> RNA ---> PROTEIN

The Genetic Code

There are only 4 nucleotide bases to specify 20 amino acids

can't be a language

Codons: Triplets of Nucleotides

smallest units of uniform length that can code foe all amino acids

verified that the flow of info from gene to protein is based on a triplet code.

Triplet Code

genetic instructions fora . polypeptide chain are written in the DNA asa series of non overlapping , 3 nucleotide words

17.5

Coding Code

non template DNA strand

used when genes sequence is reported

Concept 17.2 Transcription is the DNA-directed Synthesis of RNA: A Closer Look

Molecular Components of Transcriptions

RNA Polymerase

an enzyme that prise the 2 strands of DNA apart & joins RNA nucleotides complementary to the DNA template strand, elongating the RNA polynucleotide

0

Promoter

the DNA sequence where RNA polymerase attaches and initiates transcription

in bacteria, the sequence that signals the end of transcription is called terminator

"Downstream" & "Upstream"

Transcription Unit

The Stretch of DNA downstream from the promoter that's transcribed into an RNA molecule

Bacteria have a single type of RNA polymerase

synthesizes mRNA & other types of RNA that function in protein synthesis

EX: Ribosomal RNA

The promoter of a gene includes within it the transcription start point-- the nucleotide where RNA polymerase actually begins synthesis of the mRNA -- & extends nucleotide pairs upstream form the start point

17.9

RNA Polymerase Binding and Initiation of Transcription

Transcription Factors

in eukaryotes, a collection of proteins

mediate the binding of RNA polymerase and the initiation of transcription

Transcription Initiation Complex

the whole complex of of transcription factors and RNA polymerase II bound to the promoter

TATA Box

DNA sequence in forming the initiation complex at a eukaryotic promoter

Elongation of the RNA Strand

17.10

Termination of Transcription

bacteria and eukaryotes differ in the way they terminate transcription

Bacteria

transcription proceeds thru a terminator sequence in DNA

Eukaryotes

RNA polymerase II transcribes a sequence on the DNA called polyadenylation signal sequence

Concept 17.3 Eukaryotic Cells Modify RNA After Transcription

enzymes in eukaryotic nucleus modify pre-mRNA before the genetic message is dispatched to the cytoplasm

RNA Processing

both ends of the primary transcript are altered

produce an mRNA molecule ready for translation

Alteration of mRNA Ends

17.11

Split Genes and RNA Splicing

RNA Splicing

a remarkable stage of RNA processing in the eukaryotic nucleus

where large portions of the RNA molecules are removed and the remaining portions are reconnected

click to edit

17.12

Introns

non coding segments of nucleic acid that lie bt coding regions

Exons

the other regions, translated into amino acid sequences

Spliceosome

the removal of introns is accomplished by a large complex made of proteins and small RNAs

17.13

Alternative RNA Splicing

many genes are known to give rise to 2 or more diff polypeptides, depending of which segments are treated as exons during RNA processing

Domains

proteins often have a modular architecture consisting of discrete structural and functional regions

17.14

Concept 17.4 Translation is the RNA-Directed Synthesis of a Polypeptide

17.15

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

the message is a series of codons along an mRNA molecule, & the translator is called tRNA

process of translations "reads" a genetic message and builds a polypeptide accordingly

Structure & Function of tRNA

the key is the fact that each tRNA molecule enables translation of a given mRNA codon to a certain amino acid

Anticodon

the loop extending from the other end of the L includes the anticodon

the particular nucleotide triplet that base-pairs to a specific mRNA codon

17.16ab

Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthesis

the correct matching up of tRNA and amino acid is carried out by a family of related enzymes

Wobble

17.17

the flexible base pairing at this condon position

Structure & Function of Ribosomes

Ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs)

a ribosome consists of a large subunit and a small subunit, each made up of proteins and one or more rRNAs

in eukaryotes, the subunits are made in the nucleus

P Site

Peptideyl-tRNA - holds the tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain

A Site

Aminoacyl-tRNA - holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid to be added to the chain

E Site

Exit site - where the discharged tRNAs leave the ribosome from

17.18

Polyribosomes

Concept 17.5 Mutations of One or a Few Nucleotides ca Affect Protein Structure and Function

Mutations

changes to the genetic info of a cell

responsible for the huge diversity of genes found among organisms bc mutations are the ultimate source of new genes

Point Mutations

small scale mutations of one or a few nucleotide pairs including point mutations

changes in a single nucleotide pair of a gene

17.26

Nucleotide pair sub

the replacement of one nucleotide and its partner w another pair of nucleotides

silent mutation

missense mutations

no observable effect on the phenotype

substitutions that change one amino acid to another one

17.27

Inertions & Disertions

additions or losses of nucleotide pairs in a gene

Frameshift Mutation

happens when the number of nucleotides inserted or deleted isn't a multiple of 3

Mutagents

a number of physical and chemical agents

interact w DNA in ways that cause mutations