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EP ECHTE HC SLIDES (HC 3 cognitive approaches (levels of processing…

- - - - sensory - Short Term memory - long term memory
    - - role attention (limited processing capabilities)
      - limited size (develops over time)
      - chunking
      - limited time (info decays)
    - - Adapt instruction to cognitive bottlenecks
      - limited working memory constraints on level of automatizaition
      - dependant on 1. presentation of learning taks 2. type and difficulty learning
      - principles: modality, split attention, redundancy, expertise reversal
    - - levels of processing
      - your own personal memory palace
      - state-dependancy
      - flashbulb
      - availiility of prior knowledge
      - type of memory used
  - - - memory can change, but confidence remained high
  - - - explicit memory
        
        declarative (facts and events)
        
        episodic memory (events)
        
        semantic memory (facts) :
      - implicit memory
        
        procedural memory (skills tasks)
    - - schemes and scripts
      - ghost story experiment: shows how remembering is an active process of reconstruction
      - influencing memories (lost in the mall experiment, deceiving eye-witnesses)
    - - decay: or inability to access information
      - interference (confusion): or activation wrong scheme of more knowledge (more difficult to acces correct information)
      - repression (can psychotherapy facilitate remembering repressed memories (controversial)
- - - - affects student' achievement (self-fulfilling prophecy)
      - adapting to individual differences requires 1. use of objective information, careful consideration 2. deliberate choice to aim for convergent/divergent differentiation
  - - - spearman g-factor (spatial, logical, mechanical, arithmethical
        
        WISC
  - - - no fully agreed upon definition, no homogeneous group, hard to measure potential, underachievement (absolute, relative)
      - indicators: outstanding knowlegde, great interest, good/variabel performance, declining performance
  - - - enrichment (within the vlass, additional material, other topic sources, affects not examined)
      - acceleration (pace of instruction, early access (grade skipping), clear positive effects, individual differences)
- - - - age/development
      - abilities
      - dispositions (personality & particular interests and motivations)
    - - learning material
      - learning domain
      - prior knowledge
      - perceived ability to learn the material
    - - alone or group
      - use of learning and memorization techniques
      - through exploration or by other means
      - using (or not) technology
    - - what is 'effective'?
      - forgetting
      - transfer of knowledge
  - - - counting & measuring, comparing conditions, statistical analyses
    - - use of surveys, interview, observations. allows more in-depth research, sensitive to subjective interpretation
- - - - well-structured/defined VS illstructured/defined (knowledge rich vs knowledge lean)
    - - lowroad: automatic/spontaneous. highroad: abstraction of uncerlying principles
      - facilitated by expertise 1. seeing beyond surface features to problem structure 2. seeing structural similarities between known task and novel task 3. being able to flexibly adapt parts of a known solution procedure to solve a novel problem
  - - - compared to learn by problem-solving, a heavier reliance on worked examples is more effective and efficient for novices (effect: higher learning/transfer test performance, efficient: equal or higher performance with less investment/mental effort
      - effect only found 1. when examples are well-designed 2. for novices (at the task that is worked-out)
    - - 0 STUDIES COMPARING ALL FOUR CONDITIONS
      - examples only > schema building; little effort
      - example-problem pairs > practice after example study more motivating
      - problem-example pairs > experiencing difficulties may lead to better processing of the example
    - - select - organize - integrate
      - transient material > attend to the right information at the right time)
      - faces can distract
        
        model draws attention > affects learning to referenced info but does not seem to negatively affect learning outcomes
        
        gesture cues effective for learning
        
        gaze cues not that effective in lecture style examples; role in 'object demonstration' examples needs further study
- - - - new research method helps uncover these
  - - - core ideas: 1. children are active and motivated learners 2. children organise their learning experiences (learning = constructive process) 3. importance of psysical interaction with environment 4. importance of social interaction 5. cognitiva adaptation through assimilation&accomodation 6. progression by equilibration 7. qualitative changes in thinking (developmental stages)
      - developmental stages
        
        sensorimotor > object permanence, imitation
        
        preoperational > symbols, egocentrism (what does the doll see), animism, decentring, conservation (number, length, weight, volume)
        
        concrete-operational > reversability of operations, seration, classification
        
        formal operation > hypothetical thinking (what would earth look like without wind?), experimental thinking, formal logic
        
        proportional and abstract thinking: how much is tha half of two birds?
      - critics
        
        general underestimation of ability
        
        may be a western oriented theory
        
        still: useful as framework
    - - main points: 1. importance of early youth 2. focus on problems (and solving them) 3. role of the family 4. role of society
      - Freud: psychosexual development: conflict, stages (oral, anal, genital), id ego superego, stress lies on attaining gratification
      - Erikson psychosocial development
        
        comparable freud 1. importance of conflict (crises) 2. stresses humans as 'social animals'
      - Bronfenbrenner bio-ecological model
        
        interactions between all four models
        
        stresses the importance of the family and everything that affects you
      - conclusion
        
        there is still a lot to learn and discover, maybe nature nurture issues
- - - - law's of learning, how ppl differ in moti, iq, development and self-concept
  - - - titchener: structuralism (systemic analysis of structure consciousness, introspection)
        
        is it really psych? or just interesting? no practical use
    - - same principles apply to all organism (evolutionary explanations and sometimes simple expl)
      - study behavior without reference to internal processes
      - learning is a change in behavior
      - classical cond: learning by association
        
        extinction
        
        second-order conditioning
        
        generalization
        
        discrimination
        
        rescorla wagnermodel: leergedrag ontstaat wanneer er discrepantie is tussen wat wordt verwacht en tussen wat gebeurt
      - operant conditioning
        
        behavior operates on the environment
        
        reinforcer: change in the environment that leads to change in frequency of a response
        
        law of effect: consequences behavior influence the chance of
        
        ratio
        
        fixed
        
        variable
        
        interval
        
        fixed
        
        interval
      - applied hehavior analysis
        
        shaping of correct behavior (gradual reinforcement -> creating complex behavior sequences
        
        premarck principle -> more probable responses will reinforce less probable responses
        
        social reinforcers -> use of attention as reinforcer