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Renal Evaluation (Function (Electrolyte/Acid balance (Na, Cl, K+, H+, HCO3…

- - - - Adequate USG
        
        Indicates pre-renal disease, as the kidney has the capacity to concentrate urine appropriately
      - Inadequate USG
        
        Specific gravity is not adequate therefore indicates nephron loss and renal failure if animal isn't effected by something else
      - Hypothenuria
        
        Kidneys can dilute urine but cannot concentrate urine within the tubules indicating ADH inhibition
        
        Proximal tubule and loop of Henle generally work fine
      - Isosthenuria
        
        Cannot concetrat eor dilute urine highly suggestive of primary renal failure
        
        Happens gradually so may see ranges of results swapping between adequate and isosthenuric
- - - - GIT bleeding
        
        Hookworm burden
      - Diet
        
        High Protein Diet
      - Cachexia (increased protein catabolism)
      - Early pre renal azotemia
    - - Decreased liver function
        
        Portosystemic shunt
      - Increased excretion
        
        Extreme PU/PD
        
        Over hydration
      - Low protein intake
        
        Low protein metabolism
    - - Low Muscle Mass
- - - - Potential for contamination
    - - Less contamination
    - - Most sterile
  - - - Normal: Colourless to dark yellow
      - Abnormal:
        
        Bilirubinuria: Dark yellow to brown
        
        RBCs: Red discolouration (Haemorrhage or inflammation)
        
        Hemeoglobin: Red discolouration
        (Intravascular hemolysis, haemorrhage or inflammation, wont spin down like RBCs)
        
        Myoglobin: Red/brown discolouration (muscle damage, will not spin down, marked increase CK)
    - - Normal: Generally clear
        Except in horses they have cloudy urine
      - Abnormal:
        
        turbid: suggests increased cells in the urine
    - - Use human dipsticks not designed for animals therefore some of the parameters are disregarded and not reliable for interpretation
    - - Epithelial cells
      - Sperm
      - Casts (always abnormal)
        
        Depending on consistency can localise the cast to the location within the tubule
      - crystalluria (oversaturation)
- - - - Often fluid therapy can assist in differeitnaiting between pre-renal azotemia and primary renal disease as pre renal disease will improve with therapy
  - - - Increase serum concentrations above threshold (Haemorrhage etc)
      - Exercise, stress cause temporary increases
    - - Gomerular
        
        Alterations in glomerular permeability
        
        Usually, only small proteins get through however as the disease progresses larger proteins are able to pass through glomeruli
        
        Albumin (small protein, therefore, lots lost through this process)
        
        Globulins (much larger fewer will be lost, until disease is much more severe)
      - Tubule
        
        disease process within the tubules causign cell damage
        
        Inability to reabsorb small proteins back itno body
    - - Infection haemorrhage in the urinary tract