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CAPSTONE (Meredith - Ethics- NHMRC (Consent (Informed consent involves...,…

- - - - no coercion or pressure or exploitation (including implicit coercion due to researcher's perceived position of power)
      - Right to withdraw and implications of withdrawal. Right to knowing how data will be used, protected, reviewed, and that it can be deleted. Right to knowing the risks of the study and how they will be managed. Knowing how participants will be monitored. Involves empowering those who can't give consent themselves, and need a guardian or lawful statutory body to give consent for them.
    - - requires participants to not be exposed to an increased risk of harm, explain why deception was necessary, explain real aims and methods, no known reason to think participants would not have consented
  - - - risk= potential harm, discomfort or inconvenience (assessing harm likelihood, harm severity, extent of minimizing harm, whether risk can be justified by benefits of he research)
      - managing risk= must include a mechanism in the design of the research to deal with any harms that may occur, and a process to monitor the mechanism.
  - - - practice within limits of competence, undertake professional dev, do no harm, put welfare of clients and public above own self interests
    - - recognise position of trust that requires them to be honest and objective, committed to best interests of clients, avoid potential conflicts of interest, refrain from exploitation, maintain proper boundaries
    - - acknowledge legal rights and responsibilities, recog imp of people privacy and confidentiality, high regard for diversity and uniqueness, treat fairly without discrimination or favouritsim
  - - - responsibilities to country, kinship bonds, caring for others and the maintenance of harmony and balance within and between the physical and spiritual realms. do no harm.
    - - act to protect their cultures and identity from erosion by colonisation and marginalisation. demonstrate that they are trustworthy and will not repeat the mistakes of the past.
    - - Respect for human dignity and worth as a characteristic of relationship. Acknowledge and affirm rights of ppl to have dif values, norms, aspirations.
    - - continuity bw past, current and future generations. behaviour which maintains the coherence of A &TSI values and cultures
    - - Recognising partners' contributions and ensuring that research outcomes include equitable benefits of value to Indigenous communities or individual. reqs benefit to whole community
        
        Equal power in relationship (links to respect)
        
        A: Shared responsibility based on kinship networks + carrying for country (links to Respect for customs)
        
        Benefits equitable & identifying risks (links to Beneficence)
    - - equal value of all people, equity affirms A & TSI peoples' right to be different, research should seek to advance the elimination of inequalities
- - - - Behavioural
      - Neuroimaging
  - - - Cortisol
        
        HPA axis -> modulates the cortisol release level in the body and depends on the feedback system. Cortisol receptors reside in the hippocampus and the amygdala encourages the receptors to release cortisol. Hippocampus regulates the homeostatic levels of cortisol. stressful situations stimulate the release of cortisol (which makes the person's sympathetic nervous system active), but then when reached a certain point (threshold) it activates negative feedback to stop producing cortisol (so that the parasympathetic NS is active) BUT in anxiety disorders, this system is not working right (their threshold is higher because of constant stimulation of cortisol??). The system is impaired for constant stress overexcites hippocampal neurons and destroys them. Leading to diminished ability for the hippocampus to regulate cortisol levels and thus a negative feedback system.
        Because of this, anxiety and PTSD patients have chronic low levels of cortisol (since they are not able to reach the threshold to activate negative feedback) -> giving anxiety patients cortisol would facilitate fear extinction learning as it would lower their arousal during the fear extinction learning task, thus helping with forming the link that the feared stimulus is not stimulating a fear reaction
      - DCS
        
        partial NMDA receptor agonist, mixed results, overall null findings
        
        acts on brain to make the new link (fear extinction learning) more powerful compared to the original link (fear conditioning)
      - Noradrenaline
        
        Yohimbine (increases noradrenaline)
        
        increases fear conditioning
        
        increases fear extinciton
        
        Propranolol (decreases noradrenaline)
        
        inhibits fear conditioning
        
        inhibits fear extinciton
        
        overall not the best -> propanolol was found to only (maybe) delay fear extinction learning
      - Oxytocin
        
        idea is that it might be 'context- dependent' which means that it should amplify the environmental context that its in (so if we administer it during fear extinction learning it would facilitate the process)
        
        null findings, doesn't actually work
    - - since anxiety patients have impaired PFC activation, they are not able to suppress the strong signal which is being produced by the amygdala (which is what is driving the conditioned response) SO the idea behind brain stimulation is that if we stimulate/inhibit those areas during fear extinction it would result in better outcomes
        
        it has been found to actually do the OPPOSITE -> a TDCS study found that it actually increased fear acquisition and fear generalization SO DON'T DO IT
      - TDCS -> pad over brain areas; it only changes the threshold of activation of the areas (it doesn't actually functionally change the brain
        TMS -> coils over brain areas; it elicits action potentials in those areas; functionally changes the brain; a lot more expensive and painful
    - - Associates with Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF).
        
        BDNF increase fear extinction learning and activation in prefrontal extinction networks.
        
        Felmingham (2018) found that: BDNF Val66met polymorphism moderates the relationship between PTSD symptom and fear extinction learning.
        
        A person with low expression of Val66met allele = poorer fear extinction learning.
        
        Similarly, people with low expression of Val66met allele has poorer response to exposure therapy.
        => BDNF level can be increased through exercise, therefore, a moderate balance between exercise and exposure therapy can facilitate fear extinction.
  - - - Main areas affected are amygdala, hippocampus, cerebellum, PFC
    - - how well a memory is recalled is related to how much emotion is associated with it during encoding (or memory reconsolidation). In other words, how activated the amygdala is during memory encoding.
        little emotion -> not very important, not recalled as well
        too much emotion -> there is too much non-declarative memory involved (conditional memory) which is implicit and people can't explain it (since it is non-declarative), so it causes gaps in memory in which someone has the association of fear but is not able to explain it (because the declarative memory is not strong enough to override the non-declarative memory).
        Impaired explicit memory (overgeneral/lack of detail autobiographical memory and in semantic memory) is seen in PTSD
        There is a sweet spot for remembering and emotion
      - brain regions associated with it:
        Declarative memory -> PFC (for retrieval), temporal lobe
        Non-Declarative memory -> amygdala (conditioned fear), striatal regions (procedural memory)
    - - Affected by amygdala strength and associated stress hormones (cortisol and noradrenaline)
        it was found that being in a stressful situation increased the level of cortisol and NA that were found in the person which made their recall better (better consolidation of the memory
      - Different ways you can reconsolidate (change it when its a malleable state) a memory
        
        Propranolol
        
        blocks amygdala receptors; when memory is malleable if this is taken before it can make the initial memory seem less intense
        Kindt -> spider + shock (fear conditioning); spider image (no shock) to bring back the initial memory; two conditions -> propanolol and placebo; fear extinction
        RESULTS -> propanolol group showed less fear
        Follow-up study -> spider phobics (no need for fear coditioning); different conditions (spider image x propanolol; spider image x placebo; no spider image x propanolol; no spider image x placebo) -> it was found that you needed the image (memory reactivation) for propanolol to be effective
        
        Fear Extinction Learning
        
        reactivating the memory prior to learning extinction was found to improve fear response (closely after the reactivation so that memory was malleable)
        
        Imaginal Rescripting
        
        type of therapy that focuses on reconsolidation of memory; the premise is that you bring in the memory into consciousness so and then the therapist will change the outcome so that its reconsolidated with the new corrective information
        
        Cognitive Interventions
        
        belief that intrusive memories are highly visual so that if cognitive resources are used during the consolidation/reconsolidation phase, there is less likely that it would result in an intrusive memory (cognitive vaccine)
        Tetris game -> if there was reactivation of the memory paired with a tetris game after (during reconsolidation) it was found that there were less intrusive memories. However, tetris or reactivation by itself did not show as little intrusive memories. Key point: memory reactivation is needed to bring the memory into consciousness and make it malleable for change. Need an intervention in conjunction with the reactivation to create the change.
        
        tried to implement this technique in a prevention sense during the consolidation stage; ambulance study in which they made people who experience a trauma play tetris immediately after the trauma (when they were still consolidating the event) -> those people were found to have less intrusive memories and the ones they had disappeared quicker compared to the control group (who played a normal visual task).
        
        Memory specificity training (NOT related to memory reconsolidation, its about memory retrieval
        
        type of short term therapy in which people are helped by therapists to fix their overgeneral memory recall -> the objective of this therapy is to increase memory specificity so that individuals can 1) see that the world is not as horrible as they think (in terms of depression) and 2) the event that they experience is not something to be avoided (PTSD)
        this is done by cue words which prompt memories in the patients
- - - - dopamine hypothesis
        
        2 copies taq1allele=reduced D2receptors
        lowD2= highly impulsive, resp more to drug, poor self control, more likely to learn from reward than punishment
        
        Inhibitory control decrease
        
        taqA1+ = more likely to learn and follow reward than punishment
        
        drug dependence= continued substance use despite awareness of its negative consequences
        
        Impulsive for reward
        
        there is a persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to cut down/control use
        
        substance is taken in larger amounts or frequently than intended
        
        low availability of D2 receptors = vulnerability to addiction
        
        Dopamine and MA
        
        D2 receptors are depleted= predictor of relapse risk
        
        associated with greater impulsivity for reward
      - cue induced brain activation
        
        in active/abstinent users shown drug relared stimulo=same activation in limbic regions(amygdala, ACC)
      - Control dysfunction
        
        low activity dlPFC, ACC= cause or effect?
        
        poor cog control in drug naive kids predicts drug dependence
        
        drug related emotional stroop. active and abstinent users show slower RT for drug related cues. ability to inhibit resp to drug cue is slower
        
        can you improve control?
        
        noradrenergic drugs incr SSRT. Serotinergic drugs incr reward learning
        atomoxetine and methylphenidate to kids w ADHD improve attention taks assoc w rIFG. give to psychostimulant users =incr SSRT, incr in prefrontal activity
      - methamphetamine and cognition
        
        poor verbal memory, slow processing speed, poor self control, rigid thinking, biased towards immediate desires, selective attention, low cognitive flexibility
        
        use behavior does not predict level of cognitive impairment
      - Habit
        
        the exhibition of a learned behaviour that was insensitive to change in rewarding outcomes
        
        develop through instrumental learning
        
        initially goal-directed
    - - produce euphoria by over activating the 'pleasure/limbic' centers, by releasing dopamine.
        
        limbic system is tied to the learning centres such as the hippocampus. repeated pairing of euphoria and drug related stimuli creates an association
      - biological link between strength of drug cravings and relapse
  - - - acute doses in animals=violent behav. opiod withdrawal=aggression
        
        4 pharmacological links bw intoxication and aggression
        
        alterations of pain system
        
        ascending limb=sensitivity to pain incr. descending limb=sens to pain decr. pain heightens anger, annoyance, irritation
        
        interrupted threat detection
        
        alcohol can alleviate stress by upregulation of GABA. taylor aggression paradigm. administer electric shock to opponent. alcohol incr aggression for men but not women. changed behav only when already aggressive personality.
        
        alterations of cognition
        
        processing speed
        
        flicker fusion task. strobe flashing light incr from flicker to fusion. with alcohol transition is earlier. slowing of processing somewhere in visual sys
        
        divided attention
        
        ability to perform 2+ tasks. highly vulnerable to intoxication
        
        Inhibition and control of behav
        
        placebo vs 0.65g alcohol, gonogo task. men alcohol =more inhibitory failyre, female smaller dif. no gender effect. main effect dose, cue, rt. interaction effect bw dose, cue, gender
        
        alcohol related attentional bias
        
        small doses 0.3g primed attention bias for alcohol, over large doses 0.6g and placebo. alcohol +alcohol word=more errors
        
        psychomotor stimulant effects
        
        euphoria is rewarding, NS activation: incr bp, hr, resp. incr sensation seeking, approach behaviour, extraverted, provocative
        
        approach behaviour
        
        move joystick towards alcohol=smaller, alcohol dependents toward alcohol=faster. healthy controls=towards soft drink. retraining produces automatic action tendency changes i alcoholic patients approach bias for alcohol and improves treatment
  - - - Does intox Mitigate responsibility?
        
        Crimes act 2009
        
        Intoxicated ≠ conduct not voluntary
        
        Special provision –intoxication taken into account for murder vs manslaughter
        
        Intoxicated ≠ influence guilt
        
        But Intoxicating = relevant for sentencing (because can influence intent
      - APA and WHO use term ’substance induced psychosis’
      - Meth and aggresssion?
        
        60+% of heavy chronic Meth users report problems with aggression and problems controlling violent behaviour
        
        but successfully treat aggressive behaviour in children with ADHD
        
        & Australian data indicates that prevalence of violent crime amongst regular Meth users is comparable to other illicit drug using groups (McKetin et al)
      - Alcohol and aggression
        
        –2X likely to be a contributing factor to violent crimes, compared to non-violent crimes
        
        –The magnitude of violence was related to the magnitude of Consumption (mag violence = mag consumption
    - - Responsibility vs blame
      - Should society coerce into treatment?
      - Can they provide informed consent for substitute treatments
        
        eg Methadone
      - Should Genetic tests influence policies
- - - - Good for
        
        Neural activation in response to enivronmental factors
        
        Establishing the relationship between
        
        Aspects of peoples everyday lives & the Neural Representation of those aspects
    - - Good for...
        
        Establishing the causal relationship between variables
        
        With dense data
        
        Without intervention
    - - Good for
        
        (visualising and quantifying)
        
        Temporal (time) patterns of STIMULI in the environment
        
        Establishing different periods with a timeframe
    - - Good For...
        
        Quantifying relationships between
        
        Environmental predictors & Behaviour
        
        correlation models of when two cues may be similat
    - - Unforgettable.me
      - IFTTT
  - - - A prominent stop button that allows user to cease recording.
        
        User should be able to turn on and off individual data streams.
        
        Delay data upload so that user can delete the record that they don't want to be processed.
        
        Private format of the data.
    - - Most data collection exercises make it difficult to get access to delete the data.
        => Make the interface to become more intrinsically motivating.
    - - Today's data belongs to governments, organizations and research institutions, but generates by citizens.
        Perhaps, we should be the person to keep them.
        People can participate in marketplace where:
        
        consent the data every time so you know what your data will be used for.
        
        they are compensated each time.
    - - People would know what their data is being used for.
        
        People would be incentivised to curate their data.
        
        The data marketplace would produce a more nuanced understanding of privacy.
        
        The data should be submit directly from the users to the repository and available to the scientific community.
        
        The data ownership may lead to increase engagement in scientific process.
        
        People in the low socioeconomic status often have the most valuable data - marketplace allows the accumulation of the data asset.