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Lavan_Samantha_Blk2_MM2 (Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes (they are all bounded…

- - - - the nucleus is a membrane enclosed organelle
        
        NUCELUES: contains a Nuclear envelope (that has perforated pores and is made of a double membrane each with a lipid bilayer with associated proteins), A nucleolus (non membranous organelle that prodeces ribosomes and there is normally one or more of these in the nucleus) the chromatin (at the very center contains the DNA and proteins)
        
        the nuclear lamina is the netlike array of protein filaments that maintain the shape of the nucleus mechanically supporting the nuclear envelope
        
        there is also a possibility of a nuclear matrix that is a structure that extends through the nuclear interior
        
        the nucleus contains the DNA in chromosomes that are made of chromatin (a complex protein and DNA)
        
        the nucleolus in the center if the nucleus contains ribosomal RNA that is synthesized instruction form DNA. proteins are assembled with rRNA into large and small ribosomal until in the nucleolus
    - - free ribosomes are suspended in the cytoplasm, bound ribosomes are bound to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum
      - bound ribosome are made for insertion into membranes , for packaging within certain organelles such as lysosomes or for export from the cell (secretion)
        
        cells that specialize in secretion, like the cells inside the pancreas that secretes the digestive enzyme, frequently have a high proportion of bound ribosomes
        
        bound ribosomes and free ribosomes are identical and alternate between roles when the cell adjusts the relative number if each metabolic changes alter the types of proteins that must be synthesized
    - - function: synthesis of proteins and their transport into membranes and organelles or out of the cell metabolism and movement of lipids and detoxification of poison
        
        endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membrane tubules and sacs called cisternae the ER membrane separates the internal compartment of the ER called the ER lumen (cavity) from the cytosol.
        
        smooth ER
        
        lacks ribosomes
        
        Function of smooth ER: synopsis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates and detoxification of drugs and poisons
        
        enzymes of the smooth ER help detoxify drugs and poisons, especially in liver cells (detoxification needs hydroxyl groups) to make them more soluble and to flush them from the body
        
        stores calcium in the muscles
        
        rough ER
        
        has ribosomes that stud the exterior surface and the cytoplasmic side of the nuclear envelope's outer membrane with is continuous with rough ER
        
        function of rough ER
        
        make glycoproteins (carbohydrates attached to the protein in the ER by specialized molecules in the ER membrane)
        
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    - - sorts, ships and manufacture and stores
      - made of flattened membrane sacs, each sac separates the internal space from the cytosol
      - function: either remove sugar monomers and substitutes or produces a large variety of carbohydrates
      - they add a zip codes and mail them docking sites
    - - the various lipid and protein membranes move from the ER to the Golgi and then elsewhere
    - - food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis
      - contractile vacuoles pump excess water out of the cell to maintain the appropriate salt and other molecule concentrations
      - part of the endomembrane system
    - - some cells have one mitochondria, but others can have hundreds to thousands
      - the outside is smooth but the inside is convoluted, with folding called cistae
      - mitochondria matrix is enclosed by the inner membrane and contains many different enzymes, as well as mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes
      - built into the inner membrane
    - - plastids:
        
        amyloplastids are colorless and store starches
        
        chromoplastids have pigment that gives fruits and flowers there yellow and orange hues
      - thylakoids are stacked in pills called granum, the fluids in the cytosol is the storm and contains the chloroplast DNA and ribosomes as well as enzymes
      - Peroxisomes: Oxidation
        
        peroxisome is a special metabolic compartment bounded by a single membrane
        
        Peroxisomes contain enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen, producing hydrogen peroxide as a by-product
        
        peroxisomes are in the liver to detoxify alcohol and poisons
        
        the hydrogen peroxide is actually harmful to the human body as well but the organelles have the enzymes to convert to to water by removing an oxygen
  - - - lysosomes:Digestive Compartment
        
        digest macromolecules in animals
        
        the lysosomes's enzymes work best in acidic environments so if they split in the cell, it's okay because the cytosol is neutral, but too much leakage and the cell dies because the enzymes with cause auto digestion
        
        carry out intracellular digestion
        
        phagocytosis: Amoebas and many other protists eat by engulfing smaller organisms or other food particles
        
        from phagocytosis we get sugars, monomers and amino acids that then pass through the cytosol and become nutrients
        
        among the macrophages are white blood cells that that help defend the body by engulfing and destroying bacteria and other invaders