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Tissue and the Primary Growth of Stems (External Organization of Stems…

- - - - Vessel elements
      - Tracheids
    - - Fibers
      - sclereids
  - - - Glandular Cells
        
        secrete nectar, fragrance,mucilage,resins, and oils
      - Transfer Cells
        
        short-distance transport of materials
      - Chlorenchyma Cells
        
        involved in photosyntheisis
        
        Photosynthesis
        
        Anabolic Metabolism
        
        Intermediate-term storage
        
        simple sugar and disaccharide sucrose move around
        
        weeks to months
        
        Long-term storage
        
        starch= too large to be transported
        
        last for years
        
        Short-term storage
        
        ATP and NADPH can only be used briefly
        
        Energy and reducing power
        
        Energy Carriers
        
        Photophosphorylation
        
        subtrate-level phosphorylation
        
        oxidative phosphorylation
        
        Reducing power
        
        oxidize compouds
        
        reduced compounds
        
        oxidizing agents
        
        reducing agents
        
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        Other Electron Carriers
        
        Plastoquinones
        
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        Plastocyanin
        
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        Cytochromes
        
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        Light-Dependent Reactions
        
        Light
        
        electromagnetic radiation spectrum
        
        Pigments
        
        absorption of wavelengths gives us color
        
        Photosystem 1
        
        Produces NADPH
        
        Photosystem 2
        
        ATP synthesis
        
        inside of the chloroplast
        
        Calvin Cycle
        
        conversion of CO2 to carbohydrates
        
        Light
        
        Sunlight is pure white
        
        clear day= more photosynthesis
        
        duration of sunlight
        
        Water
        
        when the stomata is closed at night, the plant retains water
        
        Leaf Structure
        
        the structure of the leaf depends on its climate
        
        C4 Metabolism
        
        water lost and CO2 absorbed
        
        occurs in leaves with Kranz anatomy
        
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- - - - Sugars and minerals
      - sieve tube members
      - Sieve cells
    - - water and minerals
      - vessel elements
      - Tracheids
- - - - B-oxiation
- - - - Roots
        
        External Structure
        
        Organization of Root System
        
        most monocots have a fibrous root system
        
        adventitous roots
        
        single large taproot with lateral roots branching off
        
        taproot develops from the radicle
        
        Structure of Individual Roots
        
        Internal Structure
        
        Zone of Maturation/ Root Hair Zone
        
        Differentiating cells make up this zone
        
        maturation is located at the top of the root, or closest to the plant
        
        rapid mitosis
        
        roots grow here
        
        Mature Portions of the Root
        
        root pressure builds up
        
        cortex, epidermis, stele
        
        Root Apical Meristem
        
        containing meristematic cells
        
        serves as the source of new cells for root growth
        
        Root Cap
        
        parenchyma cells that cover and protect a root apex
        
        Origin and Development of Lateral roots
        
        arise in the pericycle (deep inside the root)
        
        they never develop into flowers
        
        Other Types of Roots and Root Modifications
        
        Contractile Roots
        
        aid in burring certain bulbs, corms, and rhizomes
        
        Mycorrhizae
        
        the symbiotic relationship with soil fungi
        
        both organisms benefit from this relationship
        
        Aerial Roots of Orchids
        
        adapted to drought conditions
        
        several large layers of dead white cells
        
        velamen retains the water
        
        Roots Nodules and Nitrogen Fixation
        
        occur on the roots of plants that associate with symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria
        
        host-specific strain of bacteria known as rhizobia
        
        bacterium supplies the plant with nitrogenous compounds and gets sugars
        
        Prop Roots
        
        provide additional stabilization and transport
        
        Haustorial Roots of Parasitic Flowering Plants
        
        modified roots that penetrate the tissues of host plants
        
        Storage Roots
        
        annual plants can survive without such storage capacity
        
        carbohydrates are used to make new shoots in the spring
        
        Roots of Strangler Figs
        
        grafted together roots that enclose their host’s trunk in a strangling latticework
        
        the tree host often dies from lack of photosynthesis (light)
- - - - mostly vines or small shrubs with broad leaves
      - native to southeast asia, tropical Africa, and the amazon basin
      - scale-like leaves
- - - - mutagentic chemicals are often man-made
      - Deletions can occur and so can insertions
- - - - inherited together during the meiosis phase of sexual reproduction
  - - - chromosomes are so long that it occurs several times in plants
- - - - grass family; 8000 species; they include wheat, barley, rye, corn, rice, and sugar cane
      - they are abundant in flat, open dry regions in the central area of all continents
      - grasses are wind pollinated; sepals and petals are not important
      - cattails grow in ponds and marshy areas;they produce fruits and flowers
      - closely related are the sedges and rushes; they live in marches with tiny flowers and small dry fruits
    - - familiar house plants such as Maranta and canna lilies
      - they often have large showy flowers; adjacent sepals
    - - the palms; 3500 species with their solitary trunk
      - scattered vascular bundles; leaves are near the apex
      - the leaves are simple that can be tor by wind into different patterns
- - - - this group includes cacti, iceplant, and Russian thistles
      - they produce water soluble pigments called betalains; the endosperm never fully grows so instead they produce perisperm
      - sieve tube plastids
    - - most a parasitic and live with their host plant
      - the common mistletoe is apart of this group; have chlorophyll and are photosynthetic
- - - - they divide mitotically producing vegetative cell and a small lens shaped generative cell
      - The male gametophyte that develops from the microspores of heterosporous plants.
      - The pollen grains of gymnosperms and angiosperms are microgametophytes.
    - - The female gametophyte that arises from a megaspore of a heterosporous plant
      - made up of 7 cells; cental cell with two polar nucli, three small antipodal cells, and an egg appartus consisting of synergids and an egg
  - - - One of the male gametes fuses with the female gamete to form a diploid zygote whereas the other one forms a triploid endosperm by fusing with the diploid polar nuclei.
  - - - lowermost and outermost of the four flower appendages; thickest, toughest , and waxiest
      - they are modified leaves; they surround and enclose other flower parts while they mature
      - all sepals together are called the calyx
    - - they are located above the sepals, together making up the corolla
      - sepals and petals also make up the perianth
      - they are important to attracting the right pollinators based on their size, shape, color, and arrangement of petals
    - - they are above the petals, known collectively as the androecium
      - they are referred to as the male part
      - they have two parts
        
        filament and anther(where pollen is produced)
      - tapetum contribute to microspore development and maturation
    - - they constitute the gynoecium
      - three main parts
        
        style ( elevates the stigma to a useful position)
        
        ovary( where megaspores are produced)
        
        inside are placentae regions called ovules
        
        has a central mass of parenchyma called nucellus
        
        megaspores mother cells
        
        a stigma(catches pollen grains)
  - - - exocarp (outer layer skin or peel)
      - mesocarp (middle or flesh)
      - endocarp (innermost and is tough or may be thin)
      - all called the peticarp
- - - - microgametophytes
      - megagametophytes
      - staminate sporophyte
      - carpellate sporophytes
      - these include marijuana, dates, willows, and papaya
  - - - chemical reactions between pollen and carpels that prevent pollen growth
      - the plant cannot pollinate itself
- - - - determinate inflorescence
        
        limited potential for growth
      - indeterminate inflorescence
        
        lowest or outermost flowers open first
- - - - fruits containing only ovarian tissue
    - - nonovarian tissue is present
    - - one fruit that has developed from one single flower
    - - one flower that produces many tiny fruits clustered tightly together, like raspberries, blackberries and strawberries.
    - - fruits from many different flowers which develop closely together to form one bigger fruit, like pineapples, breadfruit and mulberries.
- - - - S=cA8*x
- - - - growth begins with germination and goes all the way to mitosis
      - protoneme; alga-like cells that grow from the spores
    - - sperm are in the antherdia
      - eggs are in the archegonia
      - they can occur in the same gametophore
    - - hydroids; conduct water and dissolve minerals
      - leptoids= like sieve cells
      - water is conducted along the exterior of their stems
      - rhizoids; small, multicellular trichome-like structures that penetrate the surface of the substrate; anchor the stem
    - - the stems (gametophoes) grow close together
      - they grow from an apical meristem that contains a prominent apical cell
      - one cell thick
      - they have little protection against desiccation
- - - - gametophore is similar to mosses
    - - flat and ribbon-like; no scales
      - thallus= b=no roots, stems, or leaves
- - - - forms tight layer around stem tip
- - - - larger veins
    - - Light-harvesting
      - Simple leaf
        
        blade or just one part
      - compound leaf
        
        blade divided into several individual parts
    - - smooth upper side
- - - - water lost
  - - - open, loose aerenchyma
  - - - support the leaf
  - - - branch from vascular bundles
    - - two small flaps of issue
- - - - cells in the protoderm that grow outward
      - grow rapidly
- - - - protostele; solid mass of xylem with no pith
      - Endarch Protostele; protoxylem is located in the center and metaxylem differs on the outside
      - Exarch protostele; metaxylem in the center of the xylem mass and protoxylem on the edges
      - Siphonostele; pith is present in center (occurs in ferns and seed plants)
    - - equal dichotomous branching
      - upright simple stems
      - short cylinders w/ no leaves
      - made up of xylem, tracheids and secondary walls
      - includes Rhynia, Aglaophyton, and cooksonia (above)
  - - - sporangia open transversely
      - xylem is an exarch protostele
      - lateral sporangia
      - swampy areas
- - - - large enations (4cm)
      - single, well-developed trace of vascular tissue
- - - - roots have exarch xylem
      - megaohylls
      - 30-kilobase inversion in their DNA
  - - - enactions/ microphylls of zosterophyllophytes
      - megaphylls
        
        leaves that evolved from branch stems; telome theory
        
        telomes; twigs
      - leaves on gametophytes of nonvascular plants
- - - - 3.Pachytene
        
        chromosomes become shorter and thicker
        
        new combinations on each chromtid
      - 4.Diplotene
        
        chromosomes move away from each other
      - 2.Zygotene
        
        each chromosome of one set finds and pairs with its equalivent
      - 5.Diakinesis
        
        chromosomes become untangled and are paired only at the centromeres
      - 1.Leptotene
        
        Chromosomes begin ro condence
    - - spindle microtubules move to center of the cell
      - metaphase plate
    - - Chromosomes separate completely
    - - cells divide into two cells
- - - - existing alleles decreased in frequency and new alleles increase
    - - events in which an organism cannot adapt
      - floods, rainstorms, and droughts are accidents
    - - humans purposefully change the alleles frequency of a gene pool
      - can be used to produce ornamental plants
    - - purpose, intention, planning, or voluntary decision making
    - - survival of the fittest
      - pop. must produce more offspring than can possibly grow and survive to maturity in that habitat
- - - - each grain carry one full haploid genome but has all alleles
      - birds and insects spread pollen
    - - they can be carried by wind, floods, and stream flow
      - spiney or gummy seeds can be transferred by animals
    - - Only one plant is involved and the offspring is the result of one parent
  - - - any physical, nonliving feature that prevents two populations from exchanging genes
      - they cannot interbreed
      - mountains can be a barrier
    - - any biological phenomenon that prevents successful gene flow
      - differences in flower color, shape, or fragrances
    - - divergent evolution in which a species rapidly diverges into many new species over an extremely short time (few million years)
- - - - earth was supposedly created by gases and dust
    - - radiation and heat were sources of energy
    - - has no limit
- - - - competition; disadvantageous for one or both; fight for the same resources
      - mutualism; beneficial for both
      - niche; adapted to a particular set of conditions
    - - animals( herbivores), fungi, and prokaryotes
      - Commensal relationship; one benefits and the other is unaffected
      - fungi is often pathogenic
      - Predation; one specie benefits and the other suffers
    - - just by being in the habits it effects it
      - modification can be beneficial, detrimental, or neutral to the success of the specie
  - - - restricts them to certain regions
      - includes temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, and wind
    - - amounts of light energy varies with latitude
    - - formed by breakdown of rock
      - soil is thin and identical to the parent rock in the chem. composition
      - pioneers must tolerate extreme conditions and they change the soil
      - Horizon
        
        A Horizon is the uppermost; litter and debris
        
        B Horizon; second layer rich in nutrients and clay
        
        C Horizon; lowest layer parent rock and fragments
    - - fire, landslides, snow, avalanches, and floods
      - produce significant changes
- - - - late maturity
      - perennials
      - fewer, larger seeds
      - many defenses
    - - result of disturbances
      - species include annuals or small shrubby perennials
      - the have few advantages against predators
      - many small seeds
      - early maturity
  - - - generation time; how long between birth and birth of offspring
      - biotic potential; the offspring that are able to survive
  - - - small-scale is also important
      - random distribution; no obvious pattern
      - Clumped distribution; spacing is either large or small
      - uniform distribution; evenly spaced out
    - - the ability of a plant specie to spread throughout an area
      - any factor can act as a limiting factor