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Chelsea Chen A Period (ATOMIC PERIODICITY (ionization energy (increases…

- - - - if delta H is negative and delta S is negative
        
        more spontaneous at lower temperatures // enthalpy driven
      - if delta H is negative and delta S is positive
        
        spontaneous at all temperatures
      - if delta H is positive and delta S is negative
        
        never spontaneous at any temperature
      - if delta H is positive and delta S is positive
        
        more spontaneous at higher temperatures // entropy driven
      - does not tell speed, that is kinetics
    - - ln(K) = -(delta G)/(RT)
        
        K is equilibrium constant
        
        R is gas constant
        
        T is temperature in Kelvin
    - - delta G is 0 when reaction is at equilibrium
      - delta G naught = -RTln(K)
        
        when K > 1, delta G naught < 0
        
        when K = 0, delta G naught = 0
        
        when K<1, delta G naught > 0
    - - sum of standard free energies of products - sum of standard free energies of reactants
  - - - remember to convert to kj/molK when calculating along with enthalpy and gibbs
    - - calculated at 298K
  - - - liquid to solid
      - gas to liquid
    - - solid to liquid
      - liquid to gas
    - - energy that must be put into a solid to melt it
    - - energy that must be put into liquid to turn it into gas
- - - - delta H = q(in kJ)/moles
    - - sum of bond energies of reactants - sum of bond energies of products
      - bond breaking is endothermic, therefore bond energy is always positive
    - - change in enthalpy is same even if taken in multiple steps
      - rules in calculation
        
        if flip eq, flip the sign of enthalpy value
        
        if multiply/divide eq by integer, multiply/divide by same integer to enthalpy value
    - - standard state conditions of 298K
      - elements in their standard states is equal to 0
      - delta H can be found by subtracting the enthalpy of formation of products minus reactants
    - - combustion is always exothermic
  - - - amount of heat required to raise the degree of some mass of a substance
      - units of c is J/(g degrees celcius)
    - - q is negative if released heat
        
        exothermic
      - q is positive if absorbed heat
        
        endothermic
      - units of q is Joules
    - - units of AT is celcius
    - - units of m is grams
    - - measurement of heat changes during chemical rxns
- - - - reaction with only one reactant
      - zero order
        
        [A] = -kt + [Ao]
        
        k = - slope
        
        half life = [Ao]/2k
      - first order
        
        ln[A] = -kt + ln[Ao]
        
        k = - slope
        
        half life = ln[2]/k
      - second order
        
        1/[A] = kt + 1/[Ao]
        
        k = slope
        
        half life = 1/k[Ao]
      - looking at the graphs of each order, the one that results in the best straight line means that reaction is that order
    - - k'
      - one reactant has very low concentration while others is a lot higher concentration
      - can be 0, 1st, or 2nd order
    - - method of initial rates
        
        table of concentrations and initial rates to determine orders of each reactant and the rate constant value/units
      - graph analysis
  - - - elementary steps add up to original rx equation
      - rate-determining step gives experimentally determined rate law
        
        the rate determining step is the slowest step of the reaction that determines the overall rate as well as overall rate law of reaction
    - - the substances that don't show up in overall reaction and show up as products first and then reactancts
    - - substances that don't show up in overall reaction and show up as reactants first, then products
  - - - temperature
        
        higher temperature allows more frequent collisions and kinetic energy of molecules increased
      - pressure
        
        greater pressure means greater concentration which means greater reaction rate
      - concentration
        
        more concentration allows greater collisions
      - nature of reactants
        
        state of matter
        
        bond types
        
        number of bonds
        
        bond strength
        
        compound size
      - surface area
        
        more SA allows more collisions
- - - - for aA + bB <-> cC + dD, K = [(A^a)(B^b)]/[(C^c)(D^d)]
      - solids and liquids not included because their concentrations don't change
    - - product/forward favored // forward rx goes to completion
    - - neither direction favored // forward rx goes halfway
    - - reactant/reverse favored // forward rx not proceed far
    - - written same as concentration but w partial pressures
      - Kp = Kc(RT)^change(n)
    - - if flip rx, take reciprocal of k
      - if multiply rx by coefficient, take k to the power of that coefficient
      - if add two rxs tg, multiply the k of each rx tg
  - - - rx goes to left
    - - rx goes to right
    - - rx is at equilibrium
  - - - increasing volume / decreasing pressure
        
        greater moles of gas prodcuts
      - decreasing volume / increasing pressure
        
        fewer moles of gas particles
    - - exothermic
        
        increasing temp
        
        shift left // equil constant decreases
        
        decreasing temp
        
        shift right // equil constant increases
      - endothermic
        
        increasing temp
        
        shift right // equil constant increases
        
        decreasing temp
        
        shift left // equil constant decreases
    - - increasing products // decreasing reactants
        
        shift left
      - increasing reactants // decreasing products
        
        shift right
- - - - valence e experience greater effective nuclear charge, so need more energy to remove
    - - additional energy levels makes valence e farther and so held less tightly and require less energy
  - - - more energy levels, valence e occupy larger orbitals, therefore larger atoms
    - - stronger attraction between nucleus and valence e's therefore smaller radii
  - - - electrons fill orbitals of lowest energy level bf higher levels
    - - orbitals fill singly first, then pair up
    - - no two electrons in an atom can have the same 4 quantum numbers
      - each orbital holds max of two electrons w opposite spins
  - - - the more electron shells, the more shielding valence electrons experience
  - - - more negative = higher atom's affinity
    - - higher effective nuclear charge so can attract electron easier; more valence electrons so easier to add electron to create stability
    - - alkali metals, EA decrease down group since farther from nucleus so greater distance = less attraction = less energy released
  - - - higher effective nuclear charge, so outermost electrons feel more attraction so easier to add electron
    - - more energy levels so atom is getting larger so outermost electrons farther from nuclear attraction so not attract an addition electron well
- - - - energy associated with the formation of a crystal lattice of a cation and anion in gaseous state
      - as ionic radius increases, lattice energy decreases as less energy is released
      - releases more energy when magnitude of ionic charge increases
      - Coulomb's Law
        
        lattice energy = k[Q1Q2)/r]
        
        opposite charges
        
        PE negative and decreases (more neg) as particles get closer
        
        like charges
        
        PE positive and decreases as particles farther apart
        
        used to help explain some periodic trends
  - - - first covalent bond between two atoms
      - between standard orbital or hybrid
    - - additional bonds to first covalent bond
      - between unhybridized p orbitals
    - - electronegativity difference between two atoms
      - the more polar the molecule, the more dipole moment
      - a polar molecule must have polar bonds and asymmetric shape
  - - - 2
        
        0 lone pair
        
        linear
        
        180 degrees
        
        sp
      - 3
        
        0 lone pair
        
        trigonal planar
        
        120 degrees
        
        1 lone pair
        
        bent
        
        119 degrees
        
        sp^2
      - 4
        
        0 lone pair
        
        tetrahedral
        
        109.5 degrees
        
        1 lone pair
        
        trigonal pyramidal
        
        107 degrees
        
        2 lone pair
        
        bent
        
        104.5 degrees
        
        sp^3
      - 5
        
        0 lone pair
        
        trigonal bipyramidal
        
        120 degrees 90 degrees
        
        1 lone pair
        
        seesaw
        
        <120 degrees <90 degrees
        
        2 lone pair
        
        T-shape
        
        <90 degrees
        
        3 lone pair
        
        linear
        
        180 degrees
        
        sp^3d
      - 6
        
        0 lone pair
        
        octahedral
        
        90 degrees
        
        1 lone pair
        
        square pyramidal
        
        <90 degrees
        
        3 lone pair
        
        T-shape
        
        <90 degrees
        
        2 lone pair
        
        square planar
        
        90 degrees
        
        4 lone pair
        
        linear
        
        180 degrees
        
        sp^3d^2
      - AXE
        
        X + E = steric number
        
        X = number of bonds
        
        E = number of lone pairs on central atom
    - - linear
      - trig planar
      - tetra
      - trig bipyramid
      - octahedral
      - square planar
    - - bent
      - trig pyramid
      - seesaw
      - T-shape
      - square pyramid
- - - - relative number of electrons ejected from a given energy level
    - - binding energy of electrons
      - increases from right to left
- - - - higher boiling pt
      - higher melting pt
      - more energy required to separate
    - - London dispersion forces
        
        temp polarity due to unequal electron distribution
        
        weakest IMF
        
        nonpolar / noble gases
        
        increases with the size of molecules due to more electrons and larger e cloud /// more polarizable
        
        all molecules have
        
        increases if more surface to surface area
      - ionic-dipole
        
        ions permanent charge so stronger attractions
        
        mix of ionic compounds and polar compounds
      - dipole-dipole attractions
        
        hydrogen bonding
        
        especially strong dipole dipole that is H bonding with NOF
        
        very strong IMF
        
        polar molecules
        
        permanent polarity in molecules due to structure and bonds
  - - - weaker attractive forces = more vapor pressure
      - stronger attractive forces = less vapor pressure
- - - - effusion - escaping at single hole
      - diffusion - spreading across room
      - Graham's Law
        
        (rt of eff/diff for gas 1) / (rt of effusion for gas 2) = M2 / M1
        
        .> 1, "faster"
        
        < 1, "slower"
      - heavier molecules diffuse/effuse slower than lighter ones
  - - - 22.42 L
  - - - KE = 1/2 mv^2
        
        as temp increase, velocity increase and distribution broader
        
        lighter particles = velocity distribution broader
    - - ideal gas law is made of various simple gas laws
        
        Boyle's
        
        PV = PV
        
        Charles's
        
        V/T = V/T
        
        Avogadro's
        
        V/n = V/n
        
        gas constant R, 0.08206
    - - pressure due to individual component in gas mixture
- - - - dissolvee
    - - dissolver
    - - containing max amount of solute that will dissolve
    - - more than max amount of solute dissolved // unstable and agitation
    - - less than max amount of solute // can add more solute to dissolve
    - - solution may or may not form
    - - solution forms
    - - solution forms
  - - - delta H solute
        
        endothermic
      - delta H solvent
        
        endothermic
      - delta H mix
        
        exothermic
      - sum endo = exo
        
        delta H soln = 0
        
        entropy driven // overall energy of system constant
      - sum endo < exo
        
        exothermic // delta H soln < 0
        
        entropy and enthalpy driven
      - sum endo > exo
        
        if sol forms, greater entropy drives formation
        
        endothermic // delta H soln > 0
      - delta H (hydration)
        
        delta H solvent and mix combined for ionic compound dissolved in water
        
        delta H solute < delta H hydration
        
        delta H soln < 0
        
        delta H solute > delta H hydration
        
        delta H soln > 0
        
        delta H solute = delta H hydration
        
        delta H soln = 0
  - - - solubility increases w increasing temperature
    - - solubility decreases w increasing temp
      - higher pressure = more soluble
  - - - Psolution = (Xsolvent)(Pnaught solvent)
- - - - acid = produce hydrogen ions // bases = produce hydroxide ions
      - a reaction that involves H+ proton being transferred form one molecule to another = acid-base rx
      - original base becomes acid in reverse rx // original acid becomes base in reverse rx
    - - acids = proton donors // bases = proton acceptors
  - - - dissociates slightly
      - small K
      - reactant favored
    - - dissociate completely
      - large K
      - product favored
  - - - basic
    - - acidic
    - - if Ka > Kb , acidic
      - if Ka < Kb, basic
      - if Ka = Kb, neutral
    - - neutral
    - - acidic
  - - - pH = pKa + log([A-]/[HA])
      - when acid to base ratio is 1, pH is equal to pKa
- - - - causes oxidation
      - it itself is reduced
  - - - substance that is oxidized
      - causes reduction