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Causes of the Witch Craze (Religious Instability (However....…
Causes of the Witch Craze
Misogyny
Predominant stereotype is female
Literature
Misogynistic writers include Henrich Kramer, Jean Bodin and Henri Boguet who claimed women were more susceptible than men as they were morally weaker
Literature written by daemonologists commented on the fact that most were women
This does not explain the nature of accusations which were often made by neighbours who would not be influenced by the literature
Customary roles in society
Made villagers and neighbours more likely to suspect them
Gave them opportunities to practice magic
Cooks could gather herbs for magic purposes; the Malleus Maleficarum makes specific references to witches that could heal (healers); midwives could easily be blamed for the death of children as it was believed that they sacrificed unbaptised babies to the Devil
They may have used sorcery as protection as they lacked physical and political power
Women with power were treated with suspicion by all
Accusations of Men
Trials were often linked with heresy
In early trials, the church authorities were more concerened with diabolic/heretical acts rather than black magic
When a crime involved political sorcery, men were more likely to be suspected
Existence of a traditional male magic - Shamans
In chain reaction hunts where suspects were forced to mane accomplices, men were names
Social and Economic Conditions
Population Growth
Plague in the 14th century wiped out 1/3 of Europe
Land and food for remaining- peasants could bargain for better wages and rent
As population recovered there was a limited supply of resources causing poverty and tension
Inflation
Caused by population growth
Influx of gold and silver from America drove up rices
Beneficial for merchant classes by giving higher prices
Poor could not afford necessities and became poorer
Disease and Death
Did not understand the cause of illness
Widespread regular outbreaks
High levels of infant mortality - 1 in 4 died
Pestilence occurred in livestock
Villagers blamed neighbours for events rather than believing in natural causes
Poverty
As poverty increased an 'underclass' of beggars and thieves was created
Social tension increased as the rich grew richer and the poor poorer
Poor were perceived as the cause of this economic gap and were scapegoated, charged with witchcraft
Rich hit hard in 1600s when boom ended due to industrial production beginning a century long depression
Charity was undermined so more were poor and women suffered worse as many were unattached and this number was growing
Harvest Failure and Poor Diet
Harvest failures were common
Every sector of society depended on a good harvest
Lower society could not afford alternative food
Could lead to famine/food shortages
Sometimes substitutes were used but some were hallucinogenic e.g. poppy, alcohol and starvation
Changes in the use of land
Enclosure
Population growth meant there was competition for land
Land used from feudalism to capitalism - landowners began to make a profit
Reduction in customary rights of feudalism
Peasants denied hunting and fishing rights
Changes in Social Structure
Feudalism to capitalism
Majority of poor in rural areas begin to migrate to towns in hope of finding paid work
The only institution that has an increase in power is the monarchy with taxation and centralisation creating an absolute monarchy
Desire for greed and power - material greed for witch-hunt
Peasants were less reliant on Lords and moved into towns
Cash became the basis of many working relationships
Weather Conditions
Dependent on harvests
Belief in weather magic was ancient and widespread
After 1560 the Little Ice Age took hold for 70 years
Reduced land available for crops contributing to famine
Peak of witchcraze 1628 was cold and wet causing famine and disease
Does not explain witch hunts of 80 years previous
This all impacted on rural communities where accusations were most common and made people more desperate
Religious Instability
Traditional Catholic sacraments and rituals overturned in favour of faith alone
Development of Puritanism in the 16/17th centuries saw extreme pressure on Catholic practices as any faith ritual that was not stripped down to its bare as sinful
Major witch-hunts took place in areas most troubled by religious divisions
Witches persecuted like heretics
Number of leading witch-hunters were Puritains
Witch-hunts in areas of religious wars e.g. Germany and France
Split in Christianity led to distrust and accusations
Reformation changed the importance of the Bible - Exodus 'Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live'
Reformation and Counter intensified the process, heling it to spread
Early protestants rejected Catholic theology but a belief in the Devil and witchcraft was central to the faith
However....
Witchhunting began a century before the Reformation
Demonological beliefs were shared by all and hunters did not attack religions
Great witch hunts in Poland during the 18th Century
Few witch hunts in the early years of the Reformation
States like Italy and Spain did not suffer intense trials as they remained Catholic
Less tolerance of different ideas and minorities
Warfare
Disrupted the pattern of everyday life
French Wars of Religion (1562-1598)
Took place between Catholics and Huguenots
Went through a number of stages
Included massacres, popular unrest, military operations, foreign assistance and royal dynastic disputes
The Thirty Years War [Germany] (1618-1648)
Between Catholics and Protestants
Dominated by Bourbon-Habsburg rivalry
Included
Revolts
Local religious conflicts
Military operations
Foreign assatance
Population decrease
The English Civil War (1642-1651)
Political conflict between Parliamentarians and Royalists
There was divisions amongst the masses and the elite
Existing political structure overthrown
Period rife with disease
Allowed people to prepare psychologically for the trials
Generated a communal anxiety
However...
Experience of war was so distruptive that trials did not take place during times of war or immediately after as people had little time to deal with black magic
Witch-hunting was a peace time pursuit
Hunts usually occurred a few years after war as they were blamed on witches
People did not start trials until long-term effects of war were felt
Age of Anxiety
Changes in the period produced a mood of uncertainty and fear
Elites blamed the period of turmoil on Satan's influence in the world
Witches helped to explain everyday misfortunes
Literature and Printing
Helped to form the traditional image of a witch
Spread ideas more widely
In some places, hunts coincided with the spread of literacy
Popular Belief
Essential precondition of the witchcraze
All social orders believed in magic
By the end of the 15th century a new daemonology emerges
The devil is associated with witchcraft at this point
Witch-hunts could sometimes gain a momentum which made them difficult to stop as hysteria and panic took over
Political Changes and the Role of State
Rulers power was now more centralised and was exercised more often
Role of James and Christian of Denmark
Legal Developments
Inquisitorial system emerges meaning the jury acted independently on the continent
Use of torture in trials
Secular courts began to try witches
Key Individuals