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4,5 (functional groups (phosphate (-OPO3^-2) (ex: glycerol phosphate, a…
4,5
functional groups
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phosphate (-OPO3^-2)
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a negative charge 1- positioned inside the chain of phosphates, 2- when at the end, when attached confers a molecule the ability to react with water reeasing energy
amino (-NH2)
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acts as a base, picks up an H+ from surrounding solution
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carboxyl (-COOH)
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acts as acid, (donate H+), b/c the covalent bond between oxygen and hydrogen is polar
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methyl (-CH3)
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affects the expression of genes when on DNA or on proteins bound to DNA, it affects the shape and function of the male and female sex hormones
first six can be chemically reactive except sulfhydryl are hydrophilic and increases the organic compounds solubility in water
methyl group is not reactive, but serves as tags on biological molecules
proteins, largest molecule in the body
defense, storage, cellular communication, movement, structural support
bond between amino acids is called a peptide bond, so a polymer of amino acids are called a polypeptide.
protein is biologically functional molecule made of one or more polypeptide that are each folded and coiled into a three dimensional structure
enzymes are mostly made of proteins, enzymatic proteins regulate metabolism by acting as catalyst
structures and function
proteins structure determines how it works, the function depends on the ability to recognize and bind to other molecules
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- secondary structure, results of hydrogen bonds between repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone (a helix, b pleated)
- tertiary structure, overall shape of polypeptide resulting from interactions between R groups of various amino aicds
* quaternary structure, protein structure resulting from the aggregation of these polypeptides of polypeptide subunits (four combining polypeptides)
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denaturing, protein loses its native structure from environment alterations or weak chemical bonds
organic chemistry
compounds with carbon are organic, and their study is called organic chemistry
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ex: Friedrich Wohler, had tried to make an inorganic salt, mixing solutions of ammonium and cyanate ions
resulting in Wohler making urea (organic compound), that is found in animal urine
Carbon, is able to form molecules, large, complex, and varied that makes the diversity of organisms that have evolved on earth
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carbon skeletons
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skeletons vary in length, straight, branched, or arranged in close rings
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carbohydrates, sugars and polymers of sugars
disaccharides, two monosaccharides joined by glyosidic linkage a covalent bond formed between 2 monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction
polysaccharide, monosaccharides joined by glyosidic linkage
some serve as storage, hydrolyzed as needed for cells to provide sugar
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monosaccharides, simplest carbohydrates. glucose common monosaccharide central to life.
glucose, has a carbonyl and multiple hydroxyl group.
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monosaccharides, especially glucose are nutrients for cells, a process called cellular respiration cells extract energy from glucose molecules breaking the down into reactions
simple sugars are fuel for cell work, the carbon skeletons serve as raw material for synthesis of other smaller organic compounds
disaccharides ex; maltose, sucrose, lactose
carbon, bonding
electron configuration, the types and # of bonds that an atom will form with other atoms
carbon has 6 electrons, with 2 in the first shell and 4 in the second shell
to complete its valence shell its 4 electrons with other atoms, sharing of the electrons carbon constitutes a covalent bond
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b/c it forms four single covalent bonds, their arrangement of its four hybrid orbitals causes the bond to form a tetrahedron
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valences of carbon and its bonding with, hydrogen, nitrogen , oxygen are the four main atomic components of organic molecules
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isomers, compounds that have the same # of atoms of the same electrons but with different structures, giving them different properties
cis-trans
carbons has covalent bonds to the same atoms, but differ due to their spatial arrangements b/c if the inflexibility of double bonds
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ex: two double bonded carbons, that have an H and X attached, (X's on the same side of the double bond is called a cis isomer
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enantiomers
mirror images of each other, differing in shape b/c of the presence of asymmetric carbon(one that is attached to four different atoms or groups of atoms)
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macromolecules are polymers, built into momoners
polymer, long molecule consisting of similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds
monomers, repeating units that serve as building blocks of polymers
macromolecules are carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acid, an exception of lipids are chain like molecules called polymers
amino acids, organic molecule with both an amino group and a carboxyl group
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consists of four partners, amino group, carboxyl group, and a hydrogen atom and an R group (also called side chain) which differs with each amino acid
physical and chemical properties of the side chain determine the unique characteristics of a particular amino acid, affecting the functional role of the polypepetide
amino acids are groups according to the properties of the side chain (one is nonpolar side chains, which are hydrophobic, other group is he polar side that are hydrophilic
peptide bond, when two amino acids are positioned adjacent to each other they are joined by a dehydration reaction.
repeating sequence of atoms is the polypeptide backbone, extending from the backbone are different R groups of the amino acids
each end of the polypeptide chain will always have an amino group (n-terminus) while the other end is a carboxyl group (c-terminus)
nucleic acids, are polymers that are made of monomers called nucleotides
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), provides directions for its own replication, also directs RNA synthesis, controls protein synthesis. process called gene expression
RNA (ribonucleic acid), (mRNA)messenger for protein synthesis
nucleic acids are macromolecules that exist polymers called polynucleotides, and each polynucleotide consists of monomers called nucleotides
nucleotide is composed of five-carbon sugar, pentose, nitrogenous base, and one or more phosphate group
nitrogenous bases, consists of pyrimidine which is one a six membered of carbon and nitrogen atoms (Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil)
the other purines are larger a six membered ring fused to a five membered ring. (Adenine, Guanine)
DNA only includes (A,G,C,T). RNA only includes (A,G,C,U)
DNA sugar is deoxyribose, it lacks an oxygen atom on the second carbon, RNA is ribose
DNA and RNA structures
DNA, double helix, the two sugar phosphate backbones run in opposite 5'-3'directions from each other this is called the antiparallel
the sugar phosphate backbone are on the outside of the helix, and the nitrogenous bases are on the inside of the helix
(DNA), A and T always pair. G and C always pair
RNA, single strand, linear. base paring allows RNA to take on a three dimensional shape for its function
a type of RNA is tRNA (transfer RNA), brings amino acids to the ribosomes during the synthesis of a polypeptide
the functional shape results from base pairing between nucleotides where the complementary stretches of the molecule can run antiparallel to each other
in RNA, A pairs with U, it doesn't have thymine
lipids, don't include true polymers. and they are not big enough to be considered macromolecules
lipids mix poorly with water, the hydrophobic behavior they posses is based on the molecular structure, lipids mostly contain hydrocarbons
types of lipids
phospholipid, are essential for cells. and it has two fatty acids attached to glycerol
phospholipid has two ends, the hydrocarbon tails are hydrophobic, and the phosphate group and its attachment from a hydrophilic head
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the hydrophilic heads are on the outside of the molecule that come in contact with the aqueous solution in and out the cell
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steriods, characterized by carbon skeleton with four fused rings
one type is Cholesterol, that is a crucial molecule for animals
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fat, constructed from glycerol and fatty acids
fat is made by three fatty acid molecules joined to glycerol by an ester linkage, which was formed by a dehydration reaction between a hydroxyl and carboxyl group, resulting in a fat called triaclglycerol
saturated and unsaturated, refer to the structure of the hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids
saturated fatty acids, formed if there are no double bonds between carbon atom composing a chain, then as many hydrogen atoms as possible are bonded to the carbon skeleton
unsaturated fatty acid, one or more double bonds that has one fewer hydrogen atom on each double bonded carbon
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