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Chapter 4 & 5 (The Structure and Function of Large Biological…
Chapter 4 & 5
The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules
the molecules of life
marcomolecules
carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids are huge
5.1 macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers
polymer is a long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks linked by covalent bonds
monomers are repeating units that serve as building blocks of a polymer are smaller molecules
the synthesis and breakdown of polymers
enzymes
specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions
dehydration reaction
a reaction in which 2 molecules are covalently bonded to each other with loss of a water molecule
hydrolysis
a process that is essentially that reverse of the dehydration reaction
the diversity of polymers
if the two people are related (small variation of change) siblings, but if 2 aren't, high variations in polymers
5.2 Carbohydrates serve as fuel & building material
carbohydrates are sugars and polymers of sugar
sugars
monosaccharides
have molecular formulas that are some multiple of the unit CH2O
disaccharide
consists of two monosaccharides joined by a glyosidic linkage
glycosidic linkage
a covalent bond formed between 2 monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction
Polysaccharides
polysaccharides are macromolecules, polymers with a few hundred to a few thousands monosaccharides joined by glyosidic linkage
storage polysaccharides
starch
a polymer of glucose monomers
gylcogen
a polymer of glucose that is like amylopectin but more extensively branched
Structural polysaccharides
cellulose
is a major component of tough walls that enclose plant cells
chitin
important structural polysaccharide, the carbohydrate used by arthropods
5.3 Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules
Lipids
grouped with each other because they don't mix with water will
fats
a constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules: glycerol & fatty acids
fatty acids
has a long carbon skeleton usually 16 or 18 carbon atoms long
triacylglycerol
consisting of 3 fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule
unsaturated fatty acid
has double bonds with fewer hydrogen atoms on each double bonded carbon
transfats
trans-unsaturated fatty acids
saturated fatty acid
saturated with hydrogen
Phospholipids
is similar to a fat molecule but has only 2 fatty acids attached to glycerol rather then 3
Steroids
are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of your fused rings
cholesterol
type of steroid is a crucial molecule in animals
5.4 proteins include a diversity of structures, resulting in a wide range of function
protein folding in the cell
x-ray crystallography
depends on the diffraction of an x-ray beam by the atoms of a crystallized molecule
protein structure and fuction
structural model
space filling: shows all the atoms of the protein
ribbon model
shows only the backbone of the polypeptide chain 9coils)
Wireframe model
shows the backbone of the polypeptide chain with side chains
polypeptides (amino acid polymers)
peptide bond
covalent bond with removal of a water molecule
amino acid monomers
amino acid
is an organic molecule with both an amino group and a carboxyl group
four levels of protein structure
proteins share 3 superimposed levels of structure
primary structure
of a protein is its sequence of amino acids
secondary structure
results of hydrogen bonds between the repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone
helix
a delicate coil held together by hydrogen bonding between every fourth amino acid
tertiary structure
a polypeptide resulting from interactions between the side chains (r group) of the various amino acids
quaternary structure
is the overall protein structure that results from the aggregation if these polypeptide units
sickle-cell disease: a change in primary structure
sickle-cell diease
inherited blood disorder, is caused by substitution of one amino acid for a normal one
what determines protein structure
denaturation
weak chemical bonds & causes the protein to unravel & lose its natural shape
catalysts
chemical agents that selectively speed up chemical reactions without being consumed in the reactions
polypeptide
a polymer of amino acids
5.5 Nucleic acids store, transmit, & help express hereditary information
the roles of nucleic acids
gene
discrete unit of inheritance known
nucleic acids
are polymers made of monomers called nucleotides
deoxyribonucleic acid & ribonucleic acid (DNA & RNA)
nucleic acids
gene expression
DNA directs RNA synthesis and through RNA, controls protein synthesis
The components of nucleic acids
polynucleotides
nucleic acids are macromolecules that exist as polymers
pyrimidine
has one six-membered ring of carbon & nitrogen atoms.
purines
larger, six-membered ring fused to five membered ring
deoxyribose
sugar in DNA
ribose
Is the sugar in RNA
nucleotide polymers
information carried by the genee is encoded in its specific sequence of 4 DNA bases
the structure of DNA and RNA molecules
double helix
DNA molecules have 2 polynucleotides, or "strands", that wind around an imaginary axis
antiparallel
2 sugar-phosphate backbones run in opposite 5' -> 3' directions from each other.
5.6 Genomics & proteomics have transformed biological inquiry and applications
bioinformatics
the use of computers software and other computational tools that can handle and analyze these large data sets
genomics
study of problems of certain gene or genes
proteonmics
the study of large sets
DNA & proteins are tape measures of evolution
Carbon and The Molecular Diversity
4.1 Organic Chemistry is the study of carbon compounds
Organic Chemistry
compounds containing carbon are said to be organic, study of it
Organic Molecules and the origin of life on Earth
The overall percentages of the major elements of life (C,H,O,N,S,P)
4.2 Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms
The formation of bonds with carbon
valence
number of unpaired electrons in the valence shell, the # of covalent bonds it can form
Molecular diversity arising from variation in carbon skeletons
hydrocarbons
organic molecules consisting of only carbon & hydrogen
Isomers
compounds that have the same number of atoms of the same element but different structures
Structural isomers
molecules with the same molecular formula have bonded together in different orders
Cis-trans isomers
carbons have covalent bonds to the same atoms, differ in the spatial arrangements, due to inflexibility of double bonds
Inantiomers
are isomers that are mirror images of each other & that differs in shape due to the present of asymmetric carbon
4.3 A few chemical groups of most important in the processes of life
the chemical groups of most important in the processes of life
functional groups
chemical groups are directly involved in chemical reactions. Shape, charge -causes it to participate in chemical reactions
ATP: an important source of energy for cellular processes
Adenosine triphosphate (atp)
consist of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of 3 phosphate groups
The chemical elements of life: a review
The versatility of carbon makes it possible the great diversity of organic molecules
Carbon: backbone of life
carbon base living organisms