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Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Chapter 5: The…

- - - - -Same molecular formula but differ in covalent arrangement of atoms
      - may differ in the location of the double bonds
    - - -Same covalent partnerships but differ in the spatial arrangement of atoms around a carbon-carbon double bond
      - Double bond doesn't allow atoms to rotate freely around the bond axis.
      - CIS= SAME SIDE ; TRANS=OPPOSITE SIDES
    - - Mirror image of lack structural
      - 4 different atoms or group of atoms are bonded into an asymmetric carbon
      - May be arranged in space in 2 different ways; mirror images of each other.
      - Usually one is biologically active and the other isn't.
      - Structural differences in 2 enantiomers have important functional significance.
- - - - Simple sugars, monomers from which complex carbs are built
      - Generally has a formula that is a multiple of CH(2)O
      - Example: Glucose- C(6)H(12)O(6)
      - Ketose(Ketone sugars)- carbonyl group within carbon skeleton - FRUCTOSE
      - Aldose(Aldehyde sugars)- carbonyl at the end of carbon skeleton - GLUCOSE
      - Trioses- 3 carbon sugars | Pentoses- 5 carbon sugars | Hexoses- 6 carbon sugars
      - Asymmetric carbon- bonds to 4 different atoms/ groups of atoms (chiral)
      - linear and ring forms- glucose molecules and many other 5-6 carbon sugars
    - - Two monosaccharides joined together by Glycosidic Linkage.
      - Glycosidic Linkage- covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by Dehydration Reaction
    - - macromolecules
      - hundred/thousands of monomers linked together by glycosidic linkages
      - serve as storage/ building materials
      - architecture and function determined by its sugar monomers and by positions of glycosidic linkages
      - STARCH
        
        Polymer of Glucose
        
        Plants store in plastids for energy to be used later
        
        Main sources of starch for human diet- grains and potato
        
        amylose- (unbranched) simplest form of starch
        
        amylopectin- (branched) form of starch
        
        Glycogen- polymer of glucose that is highly branched compared to amylopectin
        
        alpha glucose- all hydroxyl groups in same orientation
        
        3-D shape mostly helix and branched
      - stored polysacchrides- starch and glycogen
      - structural polysaccharides- cellulose and chitin
      - CELLULOSE
        
        Polymer of Glucose
        
        major component of the tough cell walls in plants
        
        most abundant organic compound
        
        beta glucose- all hydroxyl groups "upside down" in every other glucose
        
        3-D shape mostly straight, never branched
        
        hydroxyl groups on its glucose monomers are free to hydrogen bond with other hydroxyl groups on nearby glucose monomers
        
        microfibrils- links of glucose cellulose monomers; strong building material for plants, paper, cotton.
        
        insoluble fiber- cellulose passing through digestive tract then eliminated
      - CHITIN
        
        Used by anthropods to build their exoskeleton.
        
        beta glucose linkages with (N)itrogen
- - - - store large amounts of energy= major function
      - strictly not polymers
      - formed with dehydation reactions
      - constructed by glycerol and fatty acids
      - Glycerol- 3-carbon alcohol; hydroxyl group attached to each carbon
      - Fatty Acid
        
        long carbon skeleton
        
        carboxyl group but consists of hydrocarbon chain
        
        C-H bonds in the long hydrocarbon skeleton make fats hydrophobic
        
        Saturated
        
        No double bonds between carbons
        
        saturated with hydrogen and packed tightly
        
        Unsaturated
        
        One or more double bonds between carbons
        
        tend to be cis double bonds creating a bend in the molecule
        
        bends prevent from being packed tightly
      - Triacylglycerol- 3 fatty acids(same or different) linked with glycerol by ester linkage.
      - Energy- 1 gram of fat is twice as much energy as 1 gram of starch (polysaccharide)
      - adipose cells- animals store fat and keeps warm; long term energy reserves.
    - - Carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings
      - Important steroid: Cholesterol necessary but not high in proportions.
    - - major component of cell membranes
      - two fatty acids attached to glycerol and phosphate group at 3rd position
      - negative charge
      - additional groups charged/polar create variety of phospholipids
      - polar head and non polar tails
      - assemble into bilayers in water, hydrophobic tails in hydrophilic head on outside.
- - - - Unique sequence of amino acids
      - slight changes will affect proteins conformation and ability to function
      - Sickle Cell Disease
        
        inherited blood disorder
        
        substitution of one amino acid (valine) for another (glutamic acid)
    - - coiled/ folded regions of the protein that contribute to its overall shape.
      - alpha helix and beta sheets; between atoms of backbone
      - hydrogen bonds between repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone
      - Alpha Helix- delicate coil held together by hydrogen bonding between every 4th amino acid
      - Beta Sheets- two parallel segments of polypeptide chain are connected by hydrogen bonds
    - - disulfide bridges- covalent bonds between sulfhydral groups found in cysteine
      - ionic bonds between positively/ negatively charged side chains
      - hydrogen bonds between polar side chains
      - hydrophobic interactions (nonpolar side chains cluster to the middle to stay away from water)/ van der waals interactions reinforce
      - -contributors to this process (all side chain (R group) reactions:
      - overall shape of the polypeptide (between side chains)
    - - aggregation of two or more polypeptides subunits
      - collagen- a fibrous protein made up of 3 polypeptides that are supercoiled into a large triple helix.
      - helix provides structural strength
      - hemoglobin- globular protein with quaternary structure
- - - - Deoxyribonucleic acid
      - provide direction for its own replication
      - directs RNA synthesis
      - through RNA, controls protein synthesis
      - Organisms inherit DNA from parents
      - Each molecule is very long, carrying several hundreds or more genes
      - sugar in DNA- lacks oxygen on second carbon
      - sugar phosphate backbone
      - STRUCTURE
        
        double helix consisting of two strands
        
        both strands are antiparallel (5'>3' and 3'>5')
        
        both strands of helix and complimentary
        
        ADENINE WITH THYMINE; GUANINE WITH CYTOSINE
    - - Ribonucleic acid
      - mRNA interacts with the cell's protein-synthesizing machinery
      - mRNA helps direct the ordering of amino acids in a polypeptide
      - mRNA- intermediary, moving genetic instructions for building proteins.
      - from the nucleus to the cytoplasm
      - sugar in RNA- lacks no oxygen as deoxyribose does
      - STRUCTURE
        
        Single strand
        
        single polynucleotide chain
        
        ADENINE WITH URACIL
        
        GUANINE WITH CYTOSINE
  - - - One 6-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms
      - CYTOSINE
      - THYMINE
      - URACIL
    - - bigger, 6-membered ring joined to a 5-membered ring.
      - adenine
      - guanine