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Educational Psychology (Statistical and Methodological Techniques…

- - - - General transfer
      - specific transfer
      - student metacognition a factor
    - - employ empirical research on how mature scholars do their work
      - study how discipline used on everyday life
      - use normative of the discipline itself
      - formulate ways that real world problems cross disciplines within it
      - Jerome Bruner (and Dewey) the grandfathers of this
    - - Huey, "The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading
      - comprehension
      - fluency
      - alphabetics
        
        phonics
        
        phonemic awareness
    - - product oriented instruction
      - process oriented instruction
        
        Hayes and Flower model
        
        Writer's long-term memory
        
        Set of cognitive operations
        
        planning activities
        
        formulating and transcribing
        
        revising
        
        task environment - all materials external to the writer
- - - - Joseph Schwab (4 commonplaces)
  - - - William Brownell
- - - - Dimensionality (Scaling) how latent factors contribute to response patterns
        
        Item Response Theory (Used to scale scores)
    - - Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) - used to reduce latent variables
      - Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)
      - Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)
      - Cluster Analysis (profile based on individual differences)
      - Latent Class Analysis (LCA) (Generalize how profiles fit a larger population)
    - - ANOVA
      - ANCOVA
      - MANOVA
      - t-test
  - - - Randomized controlled trials
      - Design-based research
    - - Longitudinal observational studies
      - Learning trajectories/Learning progression research
    - - Research in learning as cross-setting phenomena
      - Data mining and learning analytics
  - - - sequenced set of subskills needed to master a more remote learning goal
    - - DDDM
        
        Analysis of data to ascertain meaning
        
        Decision on how to proceed
        
        Learning goals that elicit data or evidence of student learning
        
        Action step taken
    - - evidence-based
      - non-evaluative
      - descriptive
      - aligned with instructional goals
- - - - Move to humans, and focus on achievement - led to expectancy-value theory
        
        Modern Expectancy-Value Theory:
        
        Task values: specific beliefs of 4 types
        
        costs: what do I have to give up
        
        utility value: future goals
        
        intrinsic value: enjoyment
        
        attainment value: importance of doing well
        
        Expectancies for Success: Do I think I can do it? Related to beliefs about competence
        
        Can I do it?
        Do I want to do it?
        
        Implicit Theories about Intelligence: What a person believes about intelligence
        
        Incremental or Malleable view: Intelligence Can change
        
        Dweck and her work on Mindset
        
        Entity or Fixed Theorists: Intelligence doesn't change much
        
        Can lead to "learned helplessness" and a state of amotivation (no motivation)
        
        Lewin (1938), Rotter (1954), Atkinson (1957)
        
        Eccles and Wigfield: domain specific
      - Self-determination theory: Why am I doing this?
        
        Extrinsic (external and environmental) can demotivate, esp, if controlling as opposed to informational
        
        Intrinsic motivation: (internal and personal)
        
        Deci and Ryan - lots of research on this - see motivation on a continuum from extrinsic to intrinsic
        
        integrated regulation: ID with target goals and behavior itself
        
        identified regulation: motivated by the value of the activity
        
        introjected regulation: internal, but not for enjoyment
        
        external regulation - satisfy and external demand
        
        Achievement Goals: why someone engages in achievement behavior
        
        mastery goals: to learn a new skill
        
        Ames (1992) identifies instructional practices to support this
        
        TARGET system: appropriate tasks; student authority; student recognition; student grouping; appropriate evaluation; appropriate time
        
        performance goals: to show ability level
        
        performance avoidance: want to avoid showing low ability
        
        performance approach: want to achieve higher than others
      - Self-regulation: How am doing?
        
        Academic Help Seeking is a form of self-regulated learning
        
        self-regulatory failures
        
        Stereotype threat: awareness of individuals concerning negative stereotypes about their group
        
        Academic disengagement: discount feedback
        
        Academic disidentification: reduces effort
      - Attribution Theory: Why did I succeed or fail?
        
        3 causal dimensions
        
        Controllability - how much can be changed?
        
        stability - endurance over time
        
        Locus - within or outside
        
        intrapersonal motivation - centers on the self
        
        interpersonal motivation - centers on others
- - - - Ecological Systems of Theory of Development
        
        Microsystem
        
        Macrosystem
        
        Exosystem
        
        Mesosystem
        
        Chronosystem
    - - Zone of Proximal Development
    - - Theory of Epigenetic Development
- - - - Spearman
        
        Theory of psychometric g: the general intelligence factor that permeates all test performance (balanced with other specific factors)
      - Thurstone
        
        Model of Mental Abilities: certain primary mental abilities exist which collectively make up intelligence (Verbal comprehension, deductive reasoning, etc) Oligarchic - different abilities all seen as equally important
        
        Hierarchical Theories of Intelligence: mental abilities are grouped by importance, moving from broader functions to more specific factors
        
        Theory of fluid and crystalized intelligence (Gf-Gc)
        
        Fluid intelligence: depends more on reasoning and speed of processing and less on accumulated knowledge
        
        Crystalized intelligence: background knowledge and pre-existing schema
        
        Horn and Cattrell among the primary theorists
        
        combined to create what is commonly referred to as the CHC Model: Hierarchical, but including a generalized intelligence factor
        
        Generalized intelligence: impacts performance on a variety of psychological tests; looking for one number to "summarize" the intelligence of an individual
        
        Carroll included this in his 1993 reanalysis of second-order Gf-Gc factors
    - - Howard Gardner
        
        Theory of Multiple Intelligences
      - Robert Sternberg
        
        Triadic Theory of Intelligence
        
        Experiential Subtheory
        
        Dealing with novel tasks and automatization
        
        Componential Subtheory
        
        Intelligent thought
        
        Metacomponents
        
        knowledge acquisition components
        
        Performance components
        
        Contextual Subtheory
        
        Critical role of environment
        
        adaptation to environment
        
        shaping of environment
        
        selection of new environment
    - - SB-V
      - WISC-IV
      - KABC-II
      - WJ-III
- - - - Constructionist View: Building Knowledge
      - Roots of Constructionist View
        
        Piaget (1926)
        
        Gestalt psychologists
        
        Bartlett and learning by assimilation to schema (1932)
    - - Shiffrin and Atkinson: IP Model focusing on memory (1969)
      - Trial and Error Learning
        
        Thorndike (1911)
      - Response Strengthening
    - - 4 Assumptions about human information processing
        
        Limited capacity to process at any one time
        
        Active Processing - leads to meaningful learning
        
        Dual channels
        
        auditory/verbal processing
        
        visual/pictorial processing
        
        Knowledge-Driven - long-term memory (schema and strategies) can guide and extend learning
      - Assumptions about human memory
        
        Working: limited capacity, only holds a few pieces of info at a time
        
        Long-term: meaningful knowledge in permanent form
        
        Sensory: unlimited capacity, very short
      - Assumptions about cognitive processes
        
        Organizing: in working memory, putting data into coherent structures
        
        Integrating: making connections between new data and long-term memory, building knowledge
        
        Selecting: what we pay attention to, in sensory memory
      - 3 Demands on Human IP System during learning
        
        Essential Processing: represents material in your mind
        
        3 ways to manage
        
        segmenting: break down lesson into learner-paced segments
        
        modality: present with spoken rather than printed words
        
        Pretraining: preteach key vocab so brain can focus on concpets
        
        Generative Processing: making meaning, requires effort
        
        3 ways to foster
        
        multimedia: present with words and pictures
        
        personalization: present in conversational style
        
        generative: ask the learner to engage in productive activity
        
        Extraneous Processing: do not support learning objective
        
        3 ways to reduce
        
        Contiguity: present corresponding words and pictures near each other
        
        Signaling: highlight essential material
        
        coherence: remove extraneous material
      - Assessment: study of how to determine what people know
        
        2 common tests for learning outcomes
        
        Retention: what learners remember
        
        Transfer: what can the learner use in a new situation
  - - - Four Stages of Cognitive Development
        
        Sensorimotor
        
        Preoperational
        
        Concrete Operational
        
        Formal Operations
    - - Exogenous constructivism - knowledge from environment of the learner
      - Endogenous constructivism: new knowledge comes from within
        
        existing structures of knowledge (schemata) changed through the process of adaptation
        
        Accommodation: low-level schemata modified into higher level
        
        assimilation: an outside event is brought to an existing scheme
        
        Teacher's role: create cognitive disequilibrium via questions or exercises that requires existing schema to be used or altered, or new ones created
        
        Equilibration: process by which new or different knowledge is brought into existing structures
      - Dialectical constructivism: new knowledge from dialectical relationship between individual and social context
        
        Social constructivism: a variation on Moshman's dialectical constructivism
        
        Instructional strategies influenced by Social Constructivism
        
        Reciprocal teaching
        
        Cognitive Apprenticeship
        
        Problem-based learning
        
        Key components
        
        authentic tasks
        
        social participation
        
        scaffolding
- - - - Triadic Reciprocality (central tenet of SCT): human behavior operates within 3 sets of influences: personal, behavioral, Social/environmental
        
        Sociocultural approaches: learning takes place historically situated activities mediated by culture
        
        Community of Practice (Lave and Wagner, 1991): members create knowledge through sustained social practice
        
        situated learning: learning in authentic activities as a community
        
        peripheral participation: learners have access to more skilled members of the community
        
        Community of Learners: adults and children work together, teacher is "expert guide"
        
        Cultural psychology: culture not so much IV as system of meaning that provides goals for children's learning
        
        Cultural-Historical Approach
        
        Higher psychological functions part of cultural heritage; thus for Vygotsky we must consider 4 processes of development
        
        Sociocultural history: evolution of cultures
        
        Ontogenesis: individual changes vis-a-vis their environment
        
        Phylogenesis:evolutionary change
        
        Microgenesis: minute-by-minute changes
        
        Human interaction with the work and one another mediated by tools and signs (language)
        
        Zone of Proximal Development: created by leading activities, the space between what a person can do on his/her own and what they can do with assistance from a more knowledgeable partner
        
        Activity Theory: originated by Leont'ev, a response to Vygotsky's privileging of semantic mediation
        
        Activity the unit of life in which humans engage
        
        Informal Learning - not passive, but purposeful, Rogoff and others call is "intent participation"
      - Types of Learning
        
        Enactive: learning through doing
        
        Vicarious: learning through observing modeled performances
        
        Learning-Performance Distinction (demonstration of learning can occur after actual learning)
        
        Capacities that allow people to strive for a sense of agency (uniquely human)
        
        Vicarious processes (when people put themselves in a position to learn through observing models)
        
        modeling: when people learn through observing others; serve 3 primary functions
        
        response facilitation: modeled actions as social prompts
        
        inhibition and disinhibition: models strengthen or weaken inhibitions
        
        observational learning: when observers perform behaviors they have not learned prior to modeling
        
        attention
        
        retention
        
        production
        
        motivation
        
        Symbolic processes (allow people to adapt and alter their environment): guide people and help them solve problems
        
        Influential symbolic processes: self-efficacy, goals and self-evaluations of progress, outcome expectations, values and social comparisons
        
        Important sources of self-efficacy: actual performances, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, physiological indicators
        
        Important properties of goals that affect motivation and learning: specificity, proximity and difficulty
        
        Self-regulatory processes: self-generated thoughts, feelings and actions which learners use to attain their goals
        
        Zimmerman (2000, 2001)
        
        Cyclical Model of self-regulation
        
        Forethought: precedes learners' actions
        
        performance: learners implement strategies
        
        self-reflection: learners assess their progress
- - - - requires concentration and engagement
  - - - mental representations/background knowledge: seems to predict superior problem-solving in experts in their domain; seems to permit greater reasoning, planning and monitoring of performance; the best problem solvers develop systems for efficient retrieval of background knowledge and have anticipated more of what could go wrong and planned for it
      - superior problem solving not predicted by intelligence for experts in their domain
  - - - dissatisfaction with current conception
      - intelligible new conception
      - fruitful new conception
      - plausible new conception
    - - diSessa (1993)
        
        Knowledge in Pieces: knowledge system of novices consists of an unstructured collection of many simple, subconceptual elements
        
        phenomenological primitives (p-prims) - name for these simple subconceptual elements
        
        the process of learning science is one of collecting and systematizing the pieces of knowledge into larger wholes
      - Carey (1985); brought Kuhn's work to developmental psych
        
        Theory-Theory: concepts are embedded within larger theoretical structures that constrain them, and conceptual change happens when a concept is reinterpreted
        in the context of a new theory
      - Vosniadou (1994)
        
        Framework Theory approach: skeletal mental structures that ground (and organize) people's understanding of information
        
        Differs from Theory-Theory in that: 1) it focuses on older children; 2) it considers conceptual change in learning as a slow and gradual process of knowledge revision and not the sudden change from one coherent theory to another
      - Chi (2008)
        
        Ontological category shifts: most difficult conceptual change because it requires creating or recognizing new categories
      - Sociocultural approach: new information not enough for conceptual change, also an environment conducive to understanding and exploration (cf. Communities of Practice)
      - Warm factors: the affective, motivational and situational aspects that may influence conceptual change (cf. Pintrich, et al, 1993)
        
        Self-efficacy: the confidence in one's own ability to perform
        
        can impede conceptual change if learner too confident in current state of knowledge
        
        can promote conceptual change if strong confidence in one's own learning
        
        Interest
        
        Individual - relatively stable
        
        Situational - can vary by circumstances
        
        High interest sustains the deep processing necessary for conceptual change
        
        Goals: cognitive representations that drive behavior
        
        mastery goals lead to more elaborate cognitive strategies
        
        Affect/Emotion
        
        valence
        
        positive - reported more by mastery-oriented students
        
        negative - lower conceptual change
        
        activation level
        
        positive - generally leads to more motivation, critical thinking
        
        negative - generally leads to deactivation, less cognitive processing
        
        Epistemic beliefs: included because of emotional connections to beliefs about knowledge
        
        beliefs about the nature of knowledge
        
        certainty of knowledge: Is knowledge stable or changing?
        
        simplicity of knowledge - Is knowledge discrete facts or interrelated concepts?
        
        beliefs about the process of knowing
        
        source of knowledge: relationship between knower and known
        
        justification of knowledge: what makes a sufficient knowledge claim?
    - - 3 types of instructional interventions that foster conceptual change
        
        Model-based reasoning
        
        a model is an idealized and schematic abstraction that represents the physical system to which it refers
        
        Instructional analogies: explicit analogies in which a less familiar concept or explanation is introduced by appealing to its relational or structural similarity to another concept from a different but more familiar domain
        
        dissonance strategies - combine with instructional analogies for better results vis-a-vis conceptual change
        
        Cognitive conflict: discrepancy between student beliefs and normative concepts
        
        refutational text: explicitly states readers’ alternative conceptions about a topic, directly refutes them, and introduces scientific concepts as viable alternatives
  - - - Managing E-materials
      - Increased use of portable digital tech
      - Educating digital Natives
    - - exploratory
      - tool
      - tutorial
      - Communication
    - - communication; email, virtual meetings
      - construction; modeling software
      - inquiry: databases
      - expression; music composition software
    - - Communicate effectively using tech
      - Develop necessary procedural skills for using new tech
      - locate and judge information
      - Self-regulation
    - - new ways to assess learning: CAT, simulations
      - new ways to analyze data: data mining, coding techniques
      - New ways of collecting data
      - new ways to develop theories - Educational Design-based Research
      - new ways to design studies: MOOC's, using big data
      - new ways to read, write, publish and share ideas
      - studying different phenomena: social networks, computer games, online education
      - New ethical issues - using data from people without their knowledge
  - - - give informative feedback
      - focus on improvement and effort
      - high expectations
      - foster interest and engagement
    - - individualize instruction
      - organize engaging context
      - instructional density
    - - monitor behavior don't punish
      - establish a democratic classroom
      - Foster community
    - - appropriate challenge level
      - encourage self-regulation
      - model thinking processes