FORMEN MAGNUM
the hole on the underside of the skull through which the spinal cord passes. In bipedal species the foramen magnum is centrally located so that the skull can balance and be supported by the s-shaped spine.

VALGUS ANGLE
in humans and bipedal species the femurs are long and angled inwards from the hip. This angling brings the knees almost directly under the centre of the pelvis so the body weight is centred through the middle of the pelvis while walking.

BOWL SHAPED PELVIS
in humans and bipedal species the pelvis is 'bowl shaped' (short and wide) which reduces the stress of the weight of the upper body on the hips, as well as supporting the internal organs. The more developed brain of humans requires a comparatively larger skull and the development of a wide pelvis allows for the birth of babies with large skulls.

S-SHAPED SPINE
human spines are s-shaped to act as a shock absorber and to keep the body weight above the hip joints for upright stance and movement.

ARCHED FOOT
the human foot has a well developed longitudinal arch which acts as a shock absorber when walking and running and is especially helpful when travelling long distances. The arch also enables the foot to push off from the ground with the toes.

BIG TOE ALIGNMENT
the big toe points forward in a line with the other toes to provide efficient toe-initiated push off for propulsion forward.

BUTTRESS OF KNEE JOINT
the lower end of the femur has buttresses of bone on the end of the knee joint to prevent sideways tilting of the lower leg while walking.

FLATTENED RIB CAGE
the ribcage is flattened front to back with a barrel-shape which allows the arms to swing freely, as well as assisting balance when walking upright and the suspension of internal organs

NUCHAL CREST
an extension to the skull to which large neck muscles attach. A large nuchal crest indicates large neck muscles and therefore a strong species.

DIASTEMA
the space between the teeth for large canine teeth to fit into so that the other teeth can come together.

SAGITTAL CREST
a ridge of bone that runs down he length of the top of the skull, to which jaw muscles attach. A larger sagittal crest indicates larger and heavier jaw muscles, therefore a larger jaw and more corse diet.

CANINES
large pointed teeth used for holding and killing prey, as
weapons or for aggressive display.

FORAMEN MAGNUM
the hole on the underside of the skull through which the spinal cord passes. The location of the foramen magnum indicates how the species walked and held themselves, as the further forward it is located indicates quadrupedalism, while a centrally located foramen magnum indicates bipedalism.

MANDIBLE
the lower jaw that holds the lower teeth in place.

ZYGOMATIC ARCH
an arch in the cheek bone through which muscles for chewing and holding up the jaw pass. These muscles are attached to the mandible and skull. A larger zygomatic arch indicates larger jaw muscles, therefore a heavier and stronger jaw used for eating tougher materials.

PROGNATHISM
when the lower section of the face noticeably projects forward.

BROW RIDGE
well developed bony ridges above and around the eyes that protect the eyes from the powerful forces developed during chewing and biting.

HOMO NEANDERTHALENSIS

HOMO SAPIENS

HOMO ERECTUS

PARANTHROPUS BOISEI

AUSTRALOPITHECUS AFARENSIS (LUCY)
-lived between 3.7 - 2.9 million years ago.
-prognathism of face
-low forehead
-bony ridge over eyes
-flat nose
-no chin
-large back teeth
-curved finger bones
-small canines compared to great apes, but still larger than humans

BIPEDAL ADAPTATIONS:
-reduced nuchal crest
-human like foot with arch and non opposable big toe
-short and wide pelvis