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EA Unit 1: The Structure of Educational Institutions (External environment…

- - - - Organisational science: attempt to describe and explain regularities in the behaviour of individuals and groups within organisation.
      - Organisational theory: a set of interrelated concepts, assumptions, and generalisations that systematically describes and explains regularities in behaviour in educational organisations. (Kerlinger 1986).
        
        Theory logically comprises concepts, assumptions, and generalisations
        
        The major function of theory is to describe, explain, and predict regularities in behaviour
        
        Theory is heuristic; that is, it stimulates and guides the further development of knowledge
    - - Concepts
        
        a term that has been given an abstract, generalised meaning
      - Assumption
        
        a statement that is accepted as true
      - Generalisation
        
        a statement that indicate the mutual relationship between two or more concepts
        
        Assumptions are generalisations if they specify the relationship between two or more concepts
        
        Hypotheses are generalisations with limited empirical support
        
        Principles are generalisations with substantial empirical support
    - - Hypotheses
        
        a conjectural statement that indicates a relationship between at least two variables
    - - Theory forms a frame of reference for practitioners
      - The process of theorising provides a general mode of analysis of practical events
      - Theory guides decision-making
  - - - view organisations as formal instruments designed to achieve specific organisational goals.
        
        Frederick Taylor: Scientific management
        
        4 principles
        
        Selection of personnel
        
        Management cooperation
        
        Functional supervising
        
        Scientific job analysis
        
        3 formalisation
        
        time and motion studies
        
        separation of managerial and employee duties
        
        incentive systems
        
        Administrative management
        
        Fayol (Urwick 1937)
        
        5 basic functions
        
        organising
        
        commanding
        
        coordinating
        
        controlling
        
        planning
        
        14 principles
        
        Division of work
        
        Authority
        
        Discipline
        
        Unity of command
        
        Unity of direction
        
        Subordination of individual interest
        
        Remuneration
        
        Centralisation
        
        Scalar chain
        
        Order
        
        Equity
        
        Stability of personnel
        
        Initiative
        
        Esprit de corps
        
        Luther Gulick (1937)
        
        planning
        
        organising
        
        staffing
        
        directing
        
        coordinating
        
        reporting
        
        budgeting
        
        Contemporary rational system: A structural view
        
        Goals
        
        Formalisation
        
        Rational-systems model
        
        Goals
        
        Division of labour
        
        Specialisation
        
        Standardisation
        
        Formalisation
        
        Hierarchy
        
        Span of control
        
        Exception principle
        
        Coordination
        
        Formal organisation
    - - in contrast to the rational-system perspective. had its early roots in the human relations' approach of the 1930s
        
        Human relations: The beginning
        
        Employees are motivated by social and psychological needs, and by economic insentives
        
        These needs, including but not limited to recognition, belongingness, and security, are more important in determining workers' morale and productivity than the physical conditions of the work environment
        
        An individual's perceptions, beliefs, motivations, cognition, responses to frustration, values, and similar factors may affect behaviour in the work setting
        
        People in all types of organisations may work along with the formal organisation and may help or hinder management
        
        Informal social groups within the workplace create and enforce their own norms and codes of behaviour. Team effort, conflict between groups, social conformity, group loyalty, communication patterns, and emergent leadership are important concepts for determining individual and group behaviour
        
        Employees have higher morale and work harder under supportive management. The human relationists believe that increased morale results in increased productivity.
        
        Communication, power, influence, authority, motivation, and manipulation are all important relationships within an organisation, especially between superior and subordinate. Effective communication channels should be develop between the various levels in the hierarchy. The human relationists emphasise democratic rather than authoritarian leadership
        
        Contemporary natural systems: A human resources view
        
        Survival
        
        Individuals
        
        Needs
        
        Specialisation
        
        Formalisaion
        
        Informal norms
        
        Hierarchy
        
        Span of control
        
        Communication
        
        Informal organisation
  - - - Chester I. Bernard (1940)
        
        structural concepts
        
        individual
        
        the cooperative system
        
        the formal organisation
        
        the complex formal organisation
        
        the informal organisation
        
        dynamic concepts
        
        free will
        
        cooperation
        
        communication
        
        authority
        
        the decision process
        
        dynamic equilibrium
      - Max Weber (1947)
  - - - Individual
        
        it is viewed in terms of the needs, goals, beliefs, and cognitive understandings of work roles; individual provide energy and capacity to achieve the organisation's goals
      - Culture
        
        the shared work orientation of participants; it gives organisation special identity
      - Politics
        
        the system of informal power relations that emerge to resist other systems of control
      - Environment
        
        everything that is outside the organisation
      - Outcomes
        
        organisational behaviour is the result of the dynamic relationship among its elements
      - Structure
        
        designed and organised to fulfil the goals of the organisation
    - - Social systems are open systems
      - Social systems are peopled
      - Social systems consist of interdependent parts, characteristics, and activities that contribute to and receive from the whole
      - Social systems are goal oriented.
      - Social systems are structural.
      - Social systems are normative.
      - Social systems are sanction-bearing.
      - Social systems are political
      - Social systems are conceptual and relative
      - All formal organisation are social systems
  - - - Form a frame of reference
      - Provide a general model for analysis
      - Guide reflective decision-making
- - - - Function
        
        expertise
        
        rationality
        
        disciplined compliance and coordination
        
        continuity and uniformity
        
        incentive
      - Dysfunction
        
        boredom
        
        lack of morale
        
        communication blocks
        
        rigidity and goal displacement
        
        conflict between achievement and seniority
    - - Function
        
        Explication
        
        Screening
        
        Punishment-legitimising
        
        Leeway
      - Dysfunction
        
        Apathy reinforcement
        
        Goal displacement
        
        Legalism
        
        Indulgency
    - - The development of informal organisation
      - A hypothetical illustration in schools
  - - - Decentralization of authority
      - A culture of openness
      - Personal authority
      - Personalisation of relationships
      - Flexibility of roles
      - Delegation of authority
      - Infusion of structure with passion and participation
    - - alienation
      - over-conformity
      - unresponsiveness
      - relentlessness
- - - - hierarchy of authority
      - specialisation
      - rules of incumbents
      - procedure specifications
      - impersonality
      - technical competence
    - - coordinating mechanisms
        
        Mutual adjustment
        
        Direct supervision
        
        Standardisation of work
        
        Standardisation of output
        
        Standardisation of skills
      - key parts
        
        simple structure
        
        machine bureaucracy
        
        professional bureaucracy
        
        divisionalised form
        
        adhocracy
      - Mintzberg's perspective applied to schools
        
        simple structure
        
        machine bureaucracy
        
        professional bureaucracy
        
        simple bureaucracy
        
        simple professional bureaucracy
        
        semi-professional bureaucracy
        
        political organisation
  - - - a set of procedures that helps employees deal more effectively with inevitable problems
    - - a set of procedures that punishes and attempts to force reluctant subordinates to comply
- - - - environmental complexity
        
        simple to complex
        
        the number, similarity, and linkage among the elements to which organisations must relate
      - environment stability
        
        stable to unstable
        
        the extent to which elements in the environment are shifting or dynamic
    - - when uncertainty is high, at least 5 problematic situations may arise for administrators
        
        additional or new information categories are needed to make sense of the information from the environment
        
        preferences regarding possible outcomes become less clear
        
        alternative courses of action and their outcomes become increasingly unpredictable and risky
        
        strategies and tactics become relatively difficult to communicate and implement
        
        potential outcomes from a decision are not known
    - - the central characteristics of the information perspective are threefold
        
        the focus is on the decision makers' perceptions of their environments rather than on the actual characteristics.
        
        perceived environmental uncertainty affects the degree of the flexibility and bureaucratic nature of organisations.
        
        empirical studies based on the information perspective typically measure environmental factors using subjective perceptions of organisational members
  - - - fiscal
      - personnel
      - information and knowledge
      - products and services
    - - as organisations become increasingly dependent on their environments for securing resources, they require and tend to exhibit more flexible and adaptive structures that are more informal, less standardised, and decentralised.
      - dependence on external elements for resources often leads to inter-organisational relationships such as joint programmes and cooperation
      - research based on this perspective uses archival, observational, and other 'objective' methods to gather data
  - - - buffering
      - planning and forecasting
      - spanning organisational boundaries
      - adjusting internal operations
    - - establishing favourable linkages
      - shaping environmental elements
  - - - decoupling
      - managing the image
    - - categorical conformity
      - structural conformity
      - procedural conformity
  - - - includes both the information and resource-dependence theories
        
        information perspective
        
        treats the external environment as a source of information for decision makers
        
        resource-dependence perspective
        
        view the environment as a place to gain scare resources for support of the technical processes of schools
      - define task environment as the aspects of external setting that are potentially relevant for goal setting, goal achievement, effectiveness, and survival
    - - assume that the environment encourage schools to conform to powerful sets of rules and requirements that are imposed by the legal, social, professional, and political contexts of organisations