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Course Mind Map (Structure of woody plants (Vascular Cambium (Fusiform…

- - - - continues to divide
        
        Constitutes fascicular cambium
    - - Long, tapered cells
        
        140 to 462 micrometers in dicots
        
        700 to 8,700 micrometers in conifers
      - Undergo periclinal division
        
        produces 2 elongate cells
        
        1 becomes cell of secondary xylem or phloem
    - - Short and cuboidal
        
        Periclinal division
        
        1 becomes xylem or parenchyma if inner cell
        
        or becomes phloem parenchyma if outer cell
    - - Ray: grouped together in short vertical rows
        
        1 cell wide
        
        2 cell wide
        
        many cells wide
      - Fusiform
        
        Regular, horizontal rows
        
        Irregular, no horizontal pattern
  - - - Wood
        
        Developed from cells formed interior to vascular cambium
        
        Contains all types of cells of primary xylem
        
        No new cells
        
        May contain
        
        Tracheids
        
        vessel elements
        
        fibers
        
        sclereids
        
        parenchyma
    - - Formed from vascular cambium also
      - Contains
        
        Sieve tube members
        
        Companion Cells
        
        In angiosperms
        
        Sieve cells
        
        In conifers
    - - origin of cells
      - arrangement of cells
  - - - strong
      - tough
      - useful for construction
    - - All angiosperms
      - All eudicots
      - Even balsa
        
        Lack fibers
        
        Very soft
  - - - vascular cambium
      - innermost cork cambium
  - - - Phellogen
        
        Cuboidal Cells
        
        Inner cell remains cork cambium
        
        outer cell differentiates
        
        Cork cell (phellem)
        
        Phelloderm
        
        layer of parenchyma
      - Periderm
        
        Cork Cells
        
        Cork Cambium
        
        Phelloderm
  - - - Spring wood
      - First wood formed
      - Must have high proportion of wide vessels
      - Wide tracheids in conifers
    - - Summer wood
      - Thickened Cuticle
      - Less transpiration
      - Large #'s of newly formed vessels
      - Lower proportion of vessels
      - Needs more mechanical strength
    - - Early wood
      - Late wood
      - One year's growth containing
  - - - Secondary bodies
        
        produced by alternative cambia
      - Differ from common type
    - - Example:
        Palm tree
        
        trunks don't taper at tips
  - - - Upper side of branch
        
        tension wood
- - - - Cell walls
  - - - Heat water
      - Put the water under pressure
      - Elevate the water
    - - Cool the water
      - Reduce the pressure
      - Lower it
  - - - High to low concentration
    - - Diffusion of water through a membrane
    - - The use of ATP to pass through membrane
  - - - Have little biological significance
      - all solutes can diffuse through
    - - Nothing can pass through
      - Act as isolation barriers
    - - only allow certain substance to pass through
      - All lipid/protein membranes
  - - - One continuous mass of protoplasm in one plant
    - - Cell wall and intercellular spaces
  - - - Pressure Flow Hypothesis
        
        Theory to explain movement of sap through phloem
      - Sources
        
        sites from which water & nutrients are transported
      - Sugars are actively transported
      - Polymer trap mechanism
        
        Conducting-cell plasma membranes
        
        Permeable to monosaccharides & disaccharides
        
        Impermeable to polysaccharides
      - Sinks
        
        Sites that receive transported phloem sap
    - - Properties of water
        
        Cohesive
        
        Water is attracted to water
        
        Adhesive
        
        Water is attracted to other substances
      - Water Transport through Xylem
        
        cohesion-tension hypothesis
        
        Explains the ascent of water from roots to leaves
        
        Most widely accepted model of the process
        
        Transstomatal transpiration
        
        Loss of water through the stoma
        
        More significant than transcuticular
        
        Transcuticular Transpiration
        
        Loss of water through cuticle
      - Control of water transport by Guard Cells
        
        Water movement is primary means of carrying minerals upwards
        
        Water moves from roots to shoots
        
        Evaporative cooling
        
        Prevents heat stress in leaves and young stems
  - - - Curved cells around a stoma
    - - Located at "joints" in lamina or stem
      - Accumulate/expel K
        
        Adjusting their water potential
    - - Specialized parenchyma cells
      - Have increased surface area
- - - - Having multiple genes for each trait
    - - numerous crosses to determine how much various genes contribute to a particular phenotype
    - - Multiple phenotype effects of one mutation
  - - - 1 on each of 2 chromatids
    - - small "bubble"
        
        Formed from two strands separating
    - - starting point for synthesis
        
        approx. 10 nucleotides long
    - - DNA-synthesizing enzyme
  - - - Covalent bonds
  - - - formed when DNA uncoils & separates
  - - - Biparental Inheritance
        
        Alleles of both parents are transmitted equally to progeny
        
        All genes in nucleus undergo this
      - Uniparental Inheritance
        
        Zygote obtains all plastid and mitochondrion genomes from maternal paren
  - - - Single character analyzed
      - Other traits not considered
      - Complete dominance
        
        Traits
        
        Dominant
        
        Masks the recessive trait
        
        Recessive
        
        Other version of trait that is masked in heterozygous individual
    - - Two genes studied simultaneously
    - - F1
        
        Offspring of parental
        
        Heterozygous
        
        2 different alleles for genes
        
        Selfing
        
        2 heterozygotes for same gene crossed together
        
        When plant's own pollen fertilizes it's own eggs
      - F2
        
        Offspring of F1
      - Parental
        
        Parents
        
        Homozygous
        
        2 identical alleles for gene
    - - Neither parental trait dominates the other
    - - Diagram used to predict genotypes
    - - Performed to discovered genotype
      - Testing trait in question
        
        Questioned individual crossed with homozygous recessive
  - - - Nature
      - position
      - extent
    - - Point
      - Small insertions
      - Deletions in introns
  - - - Point
        
        single base is converted to another base
      - Deletion
        
        A piece of DNA is lost
      - Insertion
        
        Addition of extra DNA
      - Inversion
        
        A piece becomes tangled
        
        Breaks
        
        Put in backwards in repair
    - - Mutagen
        
        Physical agent
        
        Chemical agent
        
        Ultraviolet Light
        
        X-rays
        
        Radiation
    - - In cells that never lead to sex cells
  - - - 1 new molecule
      - A conserved old one
- - - - Converted to ADP and phosphate
    - - Phosphorylated to ATP
        
        2 ways
        
        Photophosphorylation
        
        (Substrate-level)
        
        Oxidative Phosphorylation
  - - - small proteins containing a cofactor, heme.
        
        only carry e- short distances
    - - transport e- short distances
      - Hydrophobic
      - dissolve easily in lipids
      - Hydrocarbon tail
    - - small protein
      - carries e- on a metal atom
        
        copper
      - loosely associated with chloroplast membranes
        
        can move a short distance along surface, but not far
  - - - atom does not carry as many e- as it could
        
        Examples
        
        Carbon : CO2
        
        Sulfur : SO2-
        
        Nitrogen : NO3-
      - Compounds often contain lg amt of O
      - Pulls away e-
    - - e- are added to an atoom
      - Compounds contain H
  - - - reduces + chrg on atom
    - - increases + chrg on atom
  - - - 3 important factors
        
        quality
        
        quantity
        
        duration
    - - palisade parenchyma above & spongy mesophyll below
        
        excellent for absorbing CO2
        
        Inefficient for conserving water
    - - Stomata kept open during day
        
        loss of water
      - Stomata closed at night
        
        retains water
    - - CO2 is absorbed
      - Transported through
      - Concentrated in leaf
      - Oxygen is kept away from carboxylase
      - Occurs in leaves with Kranz anatomy
    - - Improves conservation of water
      - Still permits photosynthesis
  - - - Requires light energy and water
        
        Creates intermediates to act on CO2
        
        ATP
        
        NADPH
  - - - Synthetic Pathways of polysaccharides and fats
        
        storage forms of energy and carbon
        
        gluconeogenesis
        
        anabolic synthesis of glucose
  - - - produces carbohydrate
- - - - Increases
      - Decreases
      - Remains the same
    - - total number of alleles in all sex cells of all individuals of a population
      - Factors that cause change
        
        Mutation
        
        Accidents
        
        Severe droughts for plants
        
        Habitat destruction
        
        Artificial Selection
        
        Selective Breeding
        
        Natural Selection
        
        Most significant factor causing change
        
        survival of the fittest
        
        Individuals most adapted to environment survive
        
        Individuals least adapted to environment die
  - - - movement of alleles physically through space
        
        Pollen Transfer
        
        seed dispersal
        
        vegetative propagation
  - - - alleles reach individuals in one part of range but not another
        
        two fundamental causes
        
        abiological reproductive barriers
        
        Any physical, nonliving feature
        
        Prevents two populations from exchanging genes
        
        Biological reproductive factors
        
        Any biological phenomenon
        
        Prevents successful gene flow
  - - - One species becomes so changed
        
        Then considered new species
    - - Some populations evolve into new second species
      - Other population
        
        Continue unchanged
        
        evolve into new third species
  - - - Most seriously considered hypothesis
        
        Before life, Earth was different
        
        Chemicals present could react spontaneously
        
        Producing more complex chemicals
        
        Continuous spontaneous reactions
    - - lack of free molecular oxygen
  - - - Hot and rocky
      - Mostly hydrogen
        
        First atmosphere
        
        Lost into space
        
        Second atmosphere
        
        Release of gases from
        
        Rock Matrix
        
        heavy bombardment by meteorites
        
        Releasing atmospher
        
        due to lack of molecular oxygen
        
        Presence of powerful reducing agents
  - - - Species
      - organs
      - Metabolisms
    - - Responding to similar selection pressures
- - - - Chauleria
        
        Earliest known progymnosperm with heterospory
        
        from Middle Devonian Period
        
        Approx. 390 million years ago
        
        Megasporangium Structure
        
        surrounded by layer of integument
        
        large micropyle
        
        hole in integument
        
        allows sperm to swim to the egg after megaspore develops into megagametophyte and produces eggs
      - microspores evolved into pollen grains
      - Pollen chamber
        
        holding area where microspores settled
    - - This order contains
        
        Aneurophyton
        
        Protopteridium
        
        Proteokalon
        
        Tetraxylopteris
        
        Triloboxylon
        
        Eospermatopteris
      - stature varies
        
        shrubs to large trees
        
        up to 12 m tall
      - Structure
        
        vascular cambium
        
        secondary growth
        
        Primary xylem of stems is protostele
        
        Little webbing bt ultimate branches
    - - more derived progymnosperm
      - trees up to 8.4 m tall
      - structure
        
        abundant wood
        
        secondary phloem
        
        stems
        
        siphonostele
        
        pith surrounded by a ring of primary xylem bundles
      - Heterosporous reproduction
      - Megaspores up to 300 micrometers in diameter
      - Microspores up to 30 micrometers in diameter
    - - megaphyllous leaves
      - Both secondary xylem and phloem
      - no seed
      - no ovule precursors
    - - Cycadophytes
        
        Classified as three divisions
        
        Pteridospermophyta
        
        seed ferns
        
        all extinct
        
        Cycadophyta
        
        cycads
        
        extant
        
        Cycadeoidophyta
        
        cycadeoids
        
        all extinct
  - - - level of evolution
      - all descendants of common ancestor, regardless of their level of evolution
    - - both had 3-ribbed protostele
  - - - trees of moderate to gigantic size
      - have pollen cones and seed cones
        
        most are woody
    - - vines
      - herbs
      - annuals
      - have bulbs or rhizomes
    - - two types of shoot
        
        long shoots
        
        tiny papery leaves
        
        short shoots
        
        long needle leaves
        
        xeromorphic characters of leaves
        
        thick cuticle
        
        sunken stomata
        
        cylindrical shape
      - Pollen cones
        
        simple cones
        
        single short unbranched axis
        
        bears leaves called cone bracts
      - Seed cones
        
        Compound cones
        
        shoot w/ axillary buds
        
        megasporophylls fuse laterally
        
        forming ovuliferous scale
  - - - Ferns
      - Palm trees
    - - Stout trunk
        
        covered with bark and persistent leaf bases
      - pinnately compound leaves
      - short plants
        
        less than 1 or 2 m tall
      - stems
        
        thick cortex
        
        small amount of manoxylic wood
        
        tracheids are long and wide
        
        rays are massive
        
        support provided by tough leaf bases
      - produce seed and pollen cones on separate plants
  - - - only subtle differences bt the 2
        
        stomatal complexes
        
        leaf trace organization
  - - - Ephedra
        
        40 species
      - Welwitschia mirabilis
        
        only species
      - Gnetum
        
        30 species
    - - mostly vines or small shrubs w/ broad leaves
      - native to
        
        Southeast Asia
        
        Tropical Africa
        
        Amazon Basin
    - - tough shrubs and bushes
      - common in
        
        desert regions in northern mexico
        
        southwestern United States
        
        dry mountains in South America
      - leaves reduced and scale like
    - - few living plants exist in
        
        deserts of South Africa
        
        Cultivation
      - short, wide stem
      - only two leaves
        
        grow perennially from basal meristem
    - - seed
        
        compound and contain extra layers of tissue around ovules
      - pollen
        
        compound and contain small bracts
  - - - stout trunk
      - many branches
      - wood
        
        like that conifers
        
        lacks vessels and axial parenchyma
      - leaves
        
        broad
        
        dichotomously branched veins
      - both short and long shoots
    - - dioexious
      - gymnospermous
      - no cones produced
      - ovules
        
        occur in pairs
        
        large
        
        develop 3-layered seed coat
      - pollen produced in an organ that resembles a catkin
- - - - Spirits
        
        ethanol content above 20%
        
        Liquor
      - Beer
      - Wine
  - - - Increase or decrease
        
        Leads to increase or decrease in respiration
    - - Cell's access to oxygen varies
        
        Only produced during daylight
      - More variable for roots
  - - - Respiration is subject to specific metabolic controls
  - - - Variable
    - - 2 to 6 NADPH -> 0 to 12 ATP
    - - 2 ATP
    - - 2 ATP
        
        2 NADH -> 4/6 ATP
        
        1 NADH -> 6 ATP
        
        3 NADH -> 18 ATP
        
        1 FADH2 -> 4 ATP
    - - None
    - - None
  - - - Catabolic metabolism
      - Broken down into glycerol, triglycerides, and phospholipids
        
        Beta Oxidation
        
        Further broken down into acetyl CoA
    - - Maintains body temp in mammals
        
        Generate more heat through shivering when cold
      - Energy lost during each step
        
        mitochondrial electron transport
        
        Glycolysis
        
        Citric acid cycle
    - - Respiration without oxygen
        
        Often called fermentation
      - obligate anaerobes
        
        Bacteria that are exclusively
        anaerobic
        
        Killed by oxygen
    - - Oxygen is terminal
        electron acceptor
        
        Animals & Plants
        are aerobic
        
        Obligates or Strict Aerobes
      - Facultatively aerobic
        
        fungi and certain types
        of tissues in animals
        and some plants
        
        Oxygen present=aerobic
        Not present=anaerobic
        
        Can carry out both types
    - - Parallel to glycolysis
      - Essential for many metabolic pathways
        
        Transforms glucose into erythrose and ribose
      - Less important as a source of respiratory energy
        
        More significant for its role as a synthetic pathway
    - - Only when RuBP carboxylase adds oxygen instead of CO2
- - - - Species-area relationship
        
        relationship bt area & species richness
        
        Formula: S=cA^z
        
        S = # of species
        
        c and z = constants used to compare the diversity of those communities
      - Larger scale: more diverse
      - smaller scale: less diverse
      - species abundance distribution
      - large populations are more likely to survive than small
  - - - both organisms benefit
    - - Flowers can either
        
        produce nectar
        
        lose pollen that is eaten
  - - - when species compete for the same resource
      - exploitation competition
        
        organisms eat shared resources
      - interference competition
        
        one organism restricts another
    - - primary producer plant is attacked by predator
      - prey dependent
        
        predator's functional response is dependent on amount of prey
      - zero growth isocline
        
        line indicating population stability
      - paradox enrichment
        
        improving conditions for prey
        
        may lead to overexploit the prey
        
        both species will be lost
    - - 3 important factors
        
        probability of encounter
        
        decision by predator to attack once encounter happens
        
        probability that an attacked prey will be eaten successfully
      - optimal foraging theory
        
        examine the interactions bt the factors to understand why herbivores eat plants
      - optimal diet model
        
        produced by optimal foraging theory
        
        four different predictions
        
        1) predators should prefer whichever prey yields the most energy per unit of handling time
        
        2) if the high-yield prey become sufficiently scarce, then the predator would be more successful by broadening its diet to include prey that are lower in energy if they are abundant and easy to handle
        
        3) some prey items will always be eaten if they are encountered, others will never be eaten even if easy to obtain
        
        4) the probability that a particular plant will be eaten depends partially on the abundance of other plants that are easy to handle and have higher value
    - - Looks like competition is taking place, but it isn't
      - Just a factor, like weather change, that causes increase on one side
  - - - several populations are interconnected by migration and gene flow
    - - 1) a region of the env. is composed of many discrete patches in which the species can live
      - 2) Some patches are occupied by the species whereas other suitable patches are not
      - 3) Empty patches will become colonized by migration from occupied patches
      - 4) Populations within individual patches have a probability of going extinct within that patch
  - - - how energy flows through community
    - - direct line of consumption
    - - intercorrelation of consumption relashiptions
- - - - Lycopersicon esculentum
        
        Esculentum = species epiphet
        
        The word that distinguishes this species only from the other species of the genus lycopersicon
    - - Singular: Genus
        
        Difficult to categorize
        
        All have common ancestors
        
        Monophyletic: natural
        
        Unnatural: polyphyletic
        
        members evolve from different ancestors
        
        May resemble each other as result of convergent evolution
    - - Composed of one or several genera
    - - Order
      - Class
      - Division
      - Kingdom
    - - General way of referring to these groups
        
        Asteraceae
        
        Fabaceae
        
        Aracaceae
        
        Paceae
        
        Brassicaceae
        
        Apiaceae
  - - - Features similar to each other because they have descended from a common ancestral feature
    - - Features that resemble each other; related by descent from common ancestral genes
    - - Cladogram: diagram that shows evolutionary patterns by means of a series of branches
      - Node: each point at which a cladogram branches
      - Clade: Any node and all of the branches that lead from it
    - - Only unit w/ objective definition = species
      - Informal Names
        
        Basal Angiosperms
        
        Eudicots
  - - - several key characters are chosen as the basis of classification
      - Typically have goal of easy plant identification w/ obvious characters
    - - Combines features of both artificial and natural systems
      - Goal is to understand evolution of fossil and identify relatives and ancestors
      - Form genera: all fossils w/ the same basic form/structure are classified together
  - - - About 3.5 billion years ago
    - - Old classification of protista
        
        Kingdom Protista: Organism similar to that of early eukaryotes
      - Kingdom Plantae:
        
        From these, the major evolutionary lines that diverged
        
        simple plants w/ neither seeds nor vascular tissues
        
        Plants that do not produce seeds but do have xylem and phloem
        
        seed-bearing vascular plants
  - - - New Plants
      - New info about existing plants
    - - way of avoiding recurrence of disaster by spreading to many herbaria around the world
    - - single preserved plant that truly carries the name
- - - - have neither vascular tissues nor seeds
        
        Nonvascular plants
        
        Bryophytes
      - Have both vascular tissue and seeds
        
        spermatophytes
      - Have vascular tissue but no seeds
        
        Vascular cryptogams
  - - - Morphology
        
        gametophores: leafy stems of moss plants
        
        grow close together, tightly appressed and forming dense mounds
        
        Grow from apical meristems
      - Water Transport
        
        Conducted along exterior of moss stems by capillary action
        
        Hydroids
        
        cells of innermost cortex
        
        Leptoids
        
        cells that resemble sieve cells
        
        Rhizoids
        
        small, multicellular trichome-like structures that penetrate the surface of the substrate
      - Development
        
        gametophore begins when a spore germinates and sends out a long, slender chlorophyllous cells
        
        Then undergoes mitosis and produces a branched system of similar cells
        
        this network= protonema
      - Reproduction
        
        Antheridia
        
        microgametangia
        
        short stalk
        
        outermost layer of sterile cells
        
        inner mass of cells that differentiate into sperm cells
        
        produce sperm
        
        Archegonia
        
        megagametangia
        
        case shaped w/ long neck
        
        hollow neck @ maturity
        
        single egg located @ base
        
        Produce eggs
    - - all mosses are homosporous
      - Foot: small bulbous tissue
        
        developed from archegonium
      - Capsule
        
        Simple apical sporangium
      - Seta
        
        Narrow stalk bt foot & sporangium
        
        all moss sporophytes have this
      - operculum
        
        caplike lid
        
        Separates from the rest of the sporangium as cells are torn apart
      - Peristome teeth
        
        exquisitely complex teeth
        
        resulted from elaborate and precise cell breakage
        
        respond to humidity
        
        Bending outward and opening the sporangium when the air is dry
        
        bending inward and trapping the spores when the air is humid
      - calyptra
        
        layer of cells derived from the neck of the archegonium
    - - Some mosses are tolerant of desiccation
      - thin plants suffer the most
      - larger plants are better off
      - water and air do not effect quickly
  - - - Hepatic gametophytes
        
        leafy liverworts
        
        Greatly resembles that of a moss
        
        thin leaves on a slender stem
        
        thallose liverworts
        
        Less like moss
        
        Not leafy at all
        
        flat and ribbon like
        
        heart shaped and bilaterally symmetrical
        
        Thallus
        
        body without roots, stems, and leaves
      - Liverwort gametophores may be bisexual or unisexual
      - Gametophore stem grows by an apical cell with 3, 4, or 5 sides
    - - most have sporangium covered in
        
        Foot
        
        seta
        
        calyptra
      - lacks a columella
      - all are homosporous
      - elaters: single, elongate cells w/ spring-shaped walls
  - - - grow on moist soil, hidden by grasses and other herbs
    - - internally have numerous chambers
      - thin along edges, thick in center
      - shaped like ribbon or heart
        
        might also grow outward irregularly, forming a disk
      - uniquely, a special mucilage chamber forms near the upper surface
        
        cells grow into it and become antheridia
    - - no seta or discrete sporangium
      - meristem continuously produces new tissues
      - large number of spores produced by each sporophyte
      - antheridia does not arise from surface cells
- - - - Most common type
    - - individual parts become self-sufficient b establishing adventitious roots #
  - - - many flowers grouped together
      - give collective visual signal to pollinators
    - - determinate inflorescences
        
        only limited potential for growth
        
        apex is converted to a flower, ending its possibilities for continued growth
      - indeterminate inflorescences
        
        lowest flowers open first
        
        new flowers still being initiated at apex
  - - - (Humans)Diploid adults have sex organs that produce haploid sex cells
        
        gametes
        
        sperm
        
        eggs
        
        zygote
        
        fertilized egg
      - More complex than human life cycle
        
        Sporophyte phase/generation
        
        trees
        
        shrubs
        
        herbs
        
        sporophytes are always diploid
        
        have organs with cells capable of undergoing meiosis
        
        meiosis results in spores
        
        Difference between spores and gametes
        
        Spores
        
        cannot undergo syngamy
        
        undergoes mitosis
        
        1 more item...
        
        sporophytes form haploid plant
        
        Gametes
        
        can fuse with other gametes
        
        2 more items...
        
        form diploid sporophyte
      - mammalian gametes are of two types
        
        small sperm cells
        
        swim
        
        microgametes
        
        large eggs
        
        megagametes
        
        Don't swim
      - heteromorphic generation
        
        dibiontic life cycle
        
        sporophyte and gametophyte are easily distinguishable
      - alternation of generations:
        life cycle with two generations
    - - cotyledons primordia grow into these
      - suspensor: pushes embryo deep into endosperm
    - - Never wood
      - usually stem w/ leaf-like structures
      - pedicel: flower stalk
      - receptacle: very end of axis
        
        where other flower part is attached
      - 4 types of floral appendages
        
        sepals #
        
        lowermost, outermost of the four
        
        thickest, toughest, waxiest
        
        all sepals together form calyx
        
        modified leaves that surround and enclose other parts
        
        petals
        
        above sepals on the receptacle
        
        collectively known as corolla
        
        stamens
        
        Above petals
        
        collectively known as androecium
        
        2 parts
        
        filament
        
        its stalk
        
        anther
        
        where pollen is produced
        
        carpels
        
        constitute the gynoecium
        
        highest level of receptacle
        
        3 main parts
        
        2) style
        
        elevates stigma to a useful position
        
        3) ovary
        
        where megaspores are produced
        
        1) stigma
        
        catches pollen grains
        
        complete flowers
        
        have all 4
        
        typically have 3,4, or 5 more appendages of each
        
        incomplete flowers
        
        lack one or more type
      - gametophytes
        
        Microgametophyte
        
        males
        
        Megagametophyte
        
        females
    - - plasmogamy: fusion of protoplasts of gametes
      - Karyogamy: fusion of the nuclei
    - - 3 distinct layers in growth
        
        2) mesocarp
        
        middle layer: flesh
        
        3) endocarp
        
        innermost layer: may be tough like pit of cherry or may be thin
        
        1) exocarp
        
        outer layer: skin/peel
  - - - entire flower tiny
        
        ovaries need no special protection
        
        sepals often reduced/absent
        
        mutations that prevent formation of petals is advantageous
        
        attracting pollinators is unnecessary
      - pollination aided by growth pattern of plant population
    - - very important in evolution
      - most flowers are radial
      - some flowers are bilateral
    - - essential organs
        
        produce critically important spores
      - imperfect flowers
        
        lack one or both essential organs
      - perfect flower
        
        has both essential organs, may lack sepals and/or petals
      - nonessential organs: do not produce spores
        
        sepals and petals
      - Monoecious
        
        cattails
        
        corn
        
        clusters of fertilized flowers
      - Dioecious
        
        marijuana
        
        dates
        
        willows
        
        4 types of plants
        
        microgametophytes
        
        staminate
        
        sporophytes
        
        carpellate sporophytes
    - - compatibility barriers: chemical reactions bt pollen and carpels
        
        prevent pollen growth
    - - self-fertilization can be prevented if anthers and stigmas mature at different times
      - when stigma and style become mature, there may be no living pollen left in the flower
        
        all pollination is effected by younger flowers just opening their anthers
      - not very effective means of ensuring cross pollination
    - - pollination of carpel by pollen from different individual
    - - inferior
        
        can result if receptacle tissue grows upward around ovary
      - epigynous
      - superior
        
        no fusion to ovary occurs
        
        ovary is above other flower parts
        
        hypogynous parts
  - - - True Fruit
        
        fruits containing only ovarian tissue
      - Accessory Fruit
        
        false fruit
        
        any nonovarian tissue is present
      - Simple fruit
        
        fruit develops from a single ovary
        
        fruit develops from fused ovaries of one flower
      - aggregate fruit
        
        separate carpels of one gynoecium fuse during development
        
        raspberries
      - multiple fruit
        
        figs
        
        mulberries
        
        pineapple
        
        all individual fruits of an inflorescence fuse into one fruit
    - - 1st method
        
        emphasis is placed on whether the fruit is
        
        dry
        
        not typically eaten by natural seed-distributing animals
        
        Further Classification
        
        Dehiscent fruits
        
        break open and release seeds
        
        indehiscent fruits
        
        do not break open and release seeds
        
        fleshy
        
        eaten during natural seed distribution process
        
        mostly indehiscent
- - - - Cells divide by
        
        mitosis
        
        cystokinesis
    - - Right below apical meristem
        
        cells also grow & divide
        
        Produce cells for region below
    - - First xylem to appear
    - - has longest time for growth
    - - Exterior cells
        
        protophloem
      - Cells closest to metaxylem
        
        metaphloem
    - - epidermal cells
        
        early stages of differentiation
    - - Young cells of xylem & phloem
    - - Young cells of pith and cortex
  - - - An Axis
    - - Stem
      - Leaves
      - Flowers
      - Flowers
    - - Where leaves attatch
    - - Space bt Nodes
    - - Stem area above where leaf attaches
    - - Within Leaf Axil
        
        Miniature shoot
        
        Dormant apical meristem
        
        Several young leaves
      - Vegetative
        
        Grows into branch
      - Floral
        
        Grows into flower
      - Bud Scales
        
        Modified Leaves
        
        Smalll
        
        Corky
        
        Waxy
    - - At extreme tip of stem
  - - - Outermost layer
      - Single layer of living Parenchyma cells
      - Differs from human epidermis
        
        Thicker
        
        Many layers of dead cells
    - - Encrusts outer tangential walls
      - Fatty substance
      - Makes wall impermeable to water
    - - More/Less pure layer of cutin
    - - Guard cells
      - Stomatal Pore
    - - Interior to epidermis
        
        SImple
        
        Homogenous
        
        Composed of
        
        Photosynthetic parenchyma
        
        Sometimes collenchyma
    - - Xylem
        
        2 types of conducting cells
        
        Tracheids
        
        Vessel elements
      - Phloem
        
        2 types of conducting cells
        
        Sieve cells
        
        Sieve tube members
    - - Xylem & Phloem together
  - - - Most common
        
        Cells
        
        Only primary walls
        
        Remain thin
        
        Tissues
        
        Mass of parenchyma cells
        
        Constitutes soft part of plants
        
        Soft Leaves
        
        Petals
        
        Fruits
        
        Seeds
    - - Primary cell wall
        
        Thin in some areas
        
        Thickened in other areas
        
        Corners
        
        Important to its:
        
        Function
        
        Existence
      - Only in shoot tips and petioles
        
        Stretchy
        
        Must be short to be strong
      - Parenchyma needed for support
    - - Used for strength
      - Cell walls
        
        Thin Primary
        
        Thick secondary
        
        Almost always lignified
        
        Elastic
      - Developed from Parenchyma
- - - - Abiotic
        
        Climate
        
        Critically important to all organisms
        
        Components
        
        Temperature
        
        rainfall
        
        relative humidity
        
        winds
        
        Soil Factor
        
        Formed by breakdown of rock
        
        Pioneers:1st plants to invade new soil
        
        Initially thin & identical to parent rock
        
        Layers of thick soil
        
        A horizon: uppermost
        
        B Horizon: 2nd layer; zone of deposition
        
        C horizon: 3rd layer;
        composed mostly of parent rock and rock fragment
        
        Latitude and
        Altitude
        
        Latitude contributions
        
        At equator
        
        Days are 12 hrs long
        
        no seasonal variations
        
        plants cannot measure season by photoperiod
        
        Higher Latitudes
        
        Summer days longer
        
        Winter nights longer
        
        Above Arctic and Antarctic Circles
        
        mid-summer & mid-winter nights days 24 hours long
        
        Intermediate & Higher Latitudes
        
        day length=excellent indicator of season
        
        Some species sensitive to photoperiod
        
        Amount of light energy that strikes varies w/ this
        
        Altitude
        
        High altitudes
        
        High winds
        
        Poor soil
        
        Much/all year is cold
        
        Short growing season
        
        Varying
        day lengths
        
        Dependent on latitude
        
        Above much of Earth's atmosphere
        
        not fully shielded by
        
        4 more items...
        
        Disturbance
        
        Little/no impact
        
        Examples
        
        Fires
        
        landslides
        
        Snow avalanches
        
        Floods
      - Biotic
        
        The plant itself
        
        Habitat Modification
        
        Modifies habitat just by being in one
        
        May be
        
        Beneficial
        
        Detrimental
        
        Neutral
        
        Other plant species
        
        Interaction bt species
        
        Mutualism: beneficial for both organisms
        
        Competition: Disadvantageous for one species
        
        Competitive Exclusion: Theory that less adapted species is excluded
        
        Niche: species adapted to particular set of conditions
        
        Organisms other than plants
        
        Frugivores: fruit-eating animals
        
        Seed dispersal(pollination): mutualism
        
        Relationships
        
        Commensal
        
        One species benefits
        Other unaffected
        
        Predation
        
        One species benefits
        Other is harmed
        
        Herbivory
        
        2 more items...
        
        Pathogenic
        
        Between plants, fungi, and bacteria
  - - - energy and carbon compounds move to herbivore
        
        then to carnivore
        
        then to decomposers
  - - - physical size, shape, & distribution of organisms in relation to
        
        each other
        
        physical environment
      - means by which plant survives stressful seasons
      - system of life forms
        
        defined by C. Raunkiaer in 1934
    - - changes to an ecosystem over time
      - time span can be short or long
    - - feeding levels
      - primary producers
        
        Autotrophs
        
        1st step in food web
        
        energy & nutrient supply for HERBIVORES
        
        constitute primary consumers
      - Secondary Consumers
        
        carnivores
        
        prey on herbivores
      - omnivores exist at both levels
      - decomposers
        
        fungi & bacteria
        
        break down remains of
        
        all types of organisms
        
        even organisms of other decomposers
        
        vitally important in an ecosystem
  - - - Boundaries of geo range
        
        Limiting Factor: determines plant's health
        
        Local Geo Distribution
        
        Random: no identifiable pattern
        
        Uniform: evenly spaced from neighbor
        
        clumped: space is small/large; rarely average
      - Age distribution
        
        Affects the manner in which a pop. responds to various factors in its habitat
        
        demography: # of middle aged, young, & old people there are
        
        Factors that affect this
        
        generation time
        
        length of time from birth of individual until birth of its offspring
        
        Biotic potential
        
        intrinsic rate of natural inrease
        
        number of offspring that can live to reproduce
        
        does not = # of seeds produced
      - r & k selection
        
        r-selected species
        
        produced by disturbance
        
        pop. growth is limited by species own biotic potential
        
        annual, early maturity, many small seeds, few chemical defenses
        
        k-selected species
        
        perennial, late maturity, few large seeds, many deffenses
        
        pop. growth is governed by carrying capacity of ecosystem
        
        deals with crowded environment, limited sources, and competition
- - - - Characteristics
        
        naked stems
        
        epidermis with cuticle
        
        cortex of parenchyma
        
        simple bundle of xylem composed of tracheids
    - - equal dichotomous branching
        
        both branches equal size and vigor
    - - two types of xylem organization
        
        protostele
        
        in both, center is solid mass of xylem with no pith
        
        endarch protostele
        
        protoxylem located in center
        
        metaxylem differentiates on the outer edge of xylem mass
        
        exarch protostele
        
        metaxylem located in center of xylem mass
        
        protoxylem on edges as several groups next to the phloem
    - - siphonostele
        
        pith is present in center
        
        Occurs in stem of ferns and seed plants
    - - small herbs w/o secondary growth
      - 3 characteristics make them distinct
        
        lateral sporangia, not terminal
        
        sporangia opened transversely along top edge
        
        xylem was an exarch protostele
        
        protoxylem on outer margin
        
        metaxylem in center
  - - - lycophytes
        
        large enations; up to 4cm long
        
        contained single well-developed trace of vascular tissue
      - Microphylls
        
        enations in Lycophyta
      - vascular cambium cells can't undergo radial longitudinal division
        
        makes them dif. from pines
    - - necessary precondition for evolution of seeds
      - cones/strobili
        
        compact groups of sporangia clustered together
  - - - features that separate them from rhyniophytes
        
        Overtopping
        
        most important
        
        ability of one shoot to grow for a longer time than the other shoot that resulted from the branching
        
        Pseudomonopodial branching
        
        single main trunk rather than a series of dichotomies
    - - 3 distinct types
        
        1) leaves on gametophytes of nonvascular plants
        
        2) enations/microphylls of zosterophyllophytes and lycophytes
        
        3) megaphylls: leaves that evolved from branch systems and are present in all seeds plants, ferns, and equisetophytes
        
        Telome Theory: summarizes megaphyll evolution
      - Telomes
        
        ultimate twigs, those of last dichotomy
    - - one genus, several genera of extinct plants
        
        15 extant species
        
        Horsetails
        
        Scouring rushes
      - living plants are all herbs
        
        no secondary growth
        
        usually less than 1 m tall
    - - can be found in almost any habitat
      - appeared in Devonian period
      - mostly all homosporous
    - - two sister clades
      - euphyllophytes are united by 3 synapomorphies
        
        1) their roots have exarch xylem
        
        2) they have megaphylls
        
        3) they have a 30-kilobase inversion in the large single-copy region of their plastid DNA
  - - - also often called ferns and fern allies
    - - seeds
      - Flowers
      - Fruits
      - Etc