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Course MM (Seed Plants w/o flowers(gymnosperms) (Division Coniferophyta…

- - - - up to 8.4 M tall, abundant wood, heterosporous reproduction
    - - earliest known is Chauleria
      - microspores evolved into pollen grains
    - - Aneurophyton, Protopteridium, Proteokalon, Tetraxylopteris, Triloboxylon, Eospermatopteris
      - up to 12 M tall
- - - - phloem loading occurs along vascular bundles.
  - - - molecular pumps use energy of ATP to force molecules across membrane. Active transport
      - diffusion is simplest method(from high con. to low. con. known as osmosis
      - intracellular transport (vesicles migrate through cytoplasm to join another organelle
      - freely Permeable (allow all solutes to diffuse; little significance)
- - - - interior formed cells=secondary xylem(wood)
      - axial system=fusiform initials
      - radial system=ray initals
      - hardwoods=all basal angiosperms and eudicots; a lot of fibers
      - softwoods=from conifers few or no fibers
    - - first wood=early wood/spring wood wide vessels
      - annual ring/growth ring= early wood and late wood
      - vessels located throughout growth ring=diffuse porous
      - vessels strictly mainly in early wood=ring porous
      - cuticle thickens less transpiration, vessels conducting rapidly=late wood/summer wood
    - - tylosis= plug that forms when vessels push bubbles through pits into vessel
        
        inhibit growth of bacteria and fungi
        
        after all parenchyma cells die sapwood turns into heartwood
      - dark wood=heartwood
        
        becomes wider with age
      - lighter moister region=sapwood
        
        new layer each year by vascular cambium; one annual ring each year
    - - known as tension wood in angiosperms; develops on upper side
      - help branches/trunks stay up when not vertical
      - compression wood in conifers on underside of branch
  - - - maturing ones= Interfascicular cambium
      - Keep dividing; fasciular cambium
      - made of Fusiform and ray initials
    - - produce elongate cells of wood
      - secondary phloem=inner cambium
      - secondary xylem=cambium outside. more common
    - - produce short cells for storage
      - phloem parnchyma=outer cell
      - xylem parenchyma= inner cell
    - - usually short vertical rows
      - reg. horizontal rows=storied; irregular=nonstoried
      - ray inirials vs fusiform initials ratio is broad
      - each tree=one vascular cambium
  - - - short lived. cork cells also help block..so they tend to accumulate
      - phelloderm=cell inside that mature into layer of parenchyma
      - different structure and activity than vascular cambium
      - outer cell=cork cell(phellem cell)
      - periderm=cork cambium, layers of cork, phelloderm
    - - timing can be before 1 year old..or when region is several years old
      - fist cork cambium arises by reactivation of epidermal cells
    - - rounded cork cells=cant fit tightly so spaces penetrate cork layer=diffusion pathway for oxygen
      - easy to see with smooth bark trees
      - regions that allow this are lenticles
  - - - ex. are palms..have numerous vascular bundles containing many fibers
    - - alternative cambia produce secondary bodies that differ from common type
- - - - only occurs when RuBP adds oxygen rather than carbon dioxide
    - - Requires Oxygen
        
        Oxygen is electron acceptor
        
        Obligate Aerobes
        
        Facultative org. (use it when available)
        
        glycolysis; 2 ATP, 2 pyruvate, 2 NADH
        
        Citric Acid Cycle; ATP, Co2, NADH, FADH2
        
        Electron Transport Chain; Major ATP
    - - cyanide-resistant respiration, thermogenic respiration
      - during aerobic resp. heat is lost..this is it. plants and animals need it to survive
    - - No Oxygen Required
        
        Occur in mud, swamps etc.
        
        Oxygen kills these
        
        Facultative org.
        
        Ex: Rice seeds germinate anaerobically until they reach oxygenated water
        
        Glycolysis
        
        Pyruvate is electron acceptor
        
        turns into lactate or acetaldeyde
        
        forms ethanol
  - - - during night ox is not made but can diffuse into spaces if it can penetrate closed stomata. Temp is lower so ox is needed more..so its pretty easy
      - plants don't move much so as little as 1-2% is ok
      - when ox is not there..anaerobic resp. helps but not for long..after a while death happens
    - - increase in temp. of 10 b/w 5-25 doubles resp. below 5 resp. decreases a lot
      - shoots often change a lot from day to night >20 deg.
      - Above 30 deg. resp. increases but not so fast..above 40 it slows down a lot
    - - Ex; fruit resp. is steady/fast until maturity..then it slows down greatly
      - active metabolism= high aerobic resp.
  - - - up to 12 ATP
    - - 2 ATP
    - - can produce up to 38 ATP
    - - depends on the length of the fatty acid and location of where acetyl CoA enters and CAC
    - - none
    - - none
  - - - Ex; Peanut Seeds..RQ is low indicating lipids are being respired. Dark= low then death. Light= increasing toward 1 then photosynthesis starts
  - - - Fermenting grains..wheat corn rice etc.
        
        moistening grain then germinate. then dried (malt) mix with water(mash) warmed, strained, boiled, cooled, add yeast, ferment,
        
        several things effect product..like yeast used, malt process, number of cars started with, hps, etc.
    - - Fermented fruit juices
        
        Fermentation vats allow carbon dioxide to leave w/o letting ox in. after 8-10 days liq. is removed from skin then fermented for up to 1 month. if all sugar is fermented=dry wine. sugar remain=sweet wine. if left longer aging starts
    - - Fermentation always makes ethanol=depressant. ethanol makes us less focused and a risk to others while driving. depends on consumption amount and weight.
        
        methyl alcohol doses to low to kill but do cause blindness
    - - ethanol above 20%. once fermentation is above 20 ethanol is added or sol. must be distilled (tequilla, mescal,) basically fermented stuff with added ethanol
- - - - node= each point at which a cladogram branches
      - cladogram= a diagram that shows evolutionary patterns by means of series of branches
      - clade= any ancestor and all branches that lead from it
    - - only unit w/ objective definition is species
      - used to just be monocot/dicot
  - - - goal is to understand evolution of fossil and to identify ancestors and relatives
      - combines features of both artificial and natural systems
    - - typically have goal of easy plant identification w/ obvious characters
      - several key characters are chosen as the basis of classification
- - - - 3.) Empty patches will become colonized by migration from occupied patches
      - 2.) Some patches are occupied by species wheras other suitable patches are not
      - 4.) Pop within individual patches have a probability of going extinct within that patch
      - 1.) A region of the env. is composed of many discrete patches in which the species can live
  - - - 3 important factors. 1.) probability of encounter happening. 2.) decision by predator to attack once encounter happens. 3.) probability that an attacked prey will be eaten successfully
    - - prey model. pg. 712-716
    - - interference competition: one organism restricts another organisms access to resources
      - exploitation competition: resource competition occurs when the organisms actually consume a shared resource
    - - situation where it looks like competition is happening, but it is not its actually just a factor like weather change that causes increase on one side
  - - - large populations are more likely to survive then small ones
      - larger areas are more diverse
      - relationship b/w are and species richness has formula S=cA^z
        
        S= number of species
        
        c and z= are constants used to compare the diversity of those communities
  - - - mutualism or mutualistic relationships
      - facilitation= one organism helps the other w/o receiving any benefit
      - even though none of this is negative, loss still occurs. ex= flowers have the cost of either producing nectar or losing pollen that is eaten
- - - - necessary precondition for evolution of seeds
    - - vascular cambium cells cant undergo radial longitudinal division. This made them diff from pines
  - - - can be found in almost any habitat
      - appeared in Devonian period
      - mostly all homosporous
    - - overtoping, pseudomonopodial branching, branching patters. this is what made them diff from rhyniophytes
      - 1968 made for 3 genera of extinct plants
    - - one genus, 15 instinct plants
      - living plants are all herbs
        
        no secondary growth, usually less than 1 m tall
  - - - small herbs w/o secondary growth
      - similar to rhyniophytes but different sporangia, xylem
    - - protostele= solid mass center of xylem with no pith. both xylem had this
      - endarch protostele= protoxylem is located in center, metaxylem differentiates on outer edge of xylem mass
      - exarch protostele= metaxylem located in the center of the xylem mass and protoxylem on edges as several groups next to phloem
      - siphonostele= evolved later on, pith is in center
    - - characteristics include: naked stems, epidermis with cuticle, cortex of parenchyma, simple bundle of xylem composed of tracheids
- - - - palisade parenchyma above, spongy mesophyll below
    - - photorespiration(break down) energy wasting process
    - - quality of sunlight=colors of wavelengths
      - quality of light=light intensity
    - - retained at night when plants stomata are closed
  - - - cytochromes
        
        small proteins contain heme(holds iron, iron carries electrons, cycles b/w oxid states. part of thylakoid membrane
      - Plastocyanin
        
        small protein carry electron on metal atom. loosely associated w chloroplast membranes. cant travel far
      - plastoquinones
        
        transport electrons short distance, pick up 2 electrons, bind w 2 protons hydrocarbon tail=hydrophobic=dissolve easily into lipid comp. of membrane
    - - electrons added to atom=reduced
        
        tendency to accept or donate electrons varies and is known as redox potential
      - reduction reaction=reduces positive charge
        
        reducing power= ability to force electrons onto compounds
      - oxidation reaction= increases positive charges
        
        Oxidizing agents=oxidize material they react with
    - - pigments make intermediates that can be controlled. good!
        
        ATP is a good one. when not there use stuff like guanosine triphosphate
        
        ADP to ATP
        
        substrate level phosphorylation
        
        oxidative phosphorylation
        
        photophosphorylation
        
        only in chloroplasts in light
  - - - Nature of Pigments
        
        pigment(material that absorbs certain wavelengths specifically)
        
        absorption spectrum(graph shows which wavelengths are most strongly absorbed by a pigment
        
        fluorescence(release of light by a pigment)
        
        action spectrum(shows which wavelengths are most effective at powering a photochemical process)
        
        accessory pigments(mol. strongly absorb wavelengths)
        
        resonance(allows chlorophyll b to absorb what chlorophyll a cant)
        
        held in place by proteins called light harvesting complex proteins
      - Nature of Light
        
        short wave lengths=large amounts of energy
        
        long wave lengths=little amount of energy
        
        animals see 350-760( plants use for photosynthesis)
        
        humans see 760-390
        
        quanta, quantum photons
      - photosystem I
        
        ferredoxin(also in thylakoid membrane) reduced to ferredoxin NADP reductase
        
        p700 bc absorb red light of 700 nm best
      - Photosystem II
        
        loses electrons during reactions
        
        plastocyanin gives electron to chlorophyll a. receives new one from b6f. b6f gets electron from q. q gets one from phaeophytin.
    - - called dark reactions
        
        carbon dioxide to carbohydrate
        
        mol. reacts w carbon dioxide.orbitals rearrange and 2 mol. are formed each with 3 carbos PGA. this is called RUBISCO
- - - - different but same phenotype so they look alike
    - - wind and animal help spread pollen
      - things carry seeds far and allele is transferred
      - travel around part..homozygous but transform
    - - abiological reproductive barriers
        
        allopatric speciation
        
        physical non-living feature prevents 2 pop. from exchanging genes
      - biological reproductive barriers
        
        biological phenomenon prevents successful gene flow
        
        sympatric speciation
      - adaptive radiation
        
        species diverge into new species very fast
        
        Ex. animal enters new habitat and has small competition
  - - - need for pollinators
      - insects
      - weather
    - - humans purposefully change gene pool; like crop plants or animal breeders
      - usually have little effect but should not be ignored
      - avalanche, hail storm. things that alter or destroy plants