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Course MindMap (Community Ecology (competition between species (resource…

- - - - extremely hard to construct for real communities
  - - - common model makes 4 assumptions
        
        1. a region of environment is composed of many discrete patches in which the species can live
        
        2. some patches are occupied by the species whereas other suitable patches are not
        
        3. empty patches will become colonized by migration from occupied patches
        
        4. populations within individual patches have probability of going extinct within that patch
- - - - Diploid adult have sex organs that produce haploid sex cells : gametes either sperm or eggs by meiosis
        
        zygote 1 sperm & 1 eggs brought together form a new diploid cell
  - - - microgametophytes male plant
        
        produce microspores
    - - megagametophytes female plant
        
        produce megaspores
    - - heteromorphic generations gametophytes do not resemble sporophytes at all
        
        complex life cycle with at least 3 distant plants (1 sporophyte, 2 gametophytes)
  - - - meiosis results in haploid spores
        
        spores cannot undergo syngamy/fertilization, but each undergo mitosis & grow into an entire new haploid plant(gametophyte)
        
        sporophytes reproduce a haploid plant that does not resemble the diploid sporophyte it came from
        
        haploid gametophyte: tiny mass of cells w/o roots,stems, leaves, or vascular tissues, yet it is an entire plant
        
        gametes then undergo syngamy (fertilization) forming a zygote that grows into a new diploid sporophyte
        
        life cycle is complete
  - - - embryo sac multinucleated megagametophyte
        
        large 8 nucleated megaspore becomes a megagametophyte w/ 7 cells
        
        central cell the 7 cells are one large central cell
        
        with 2 polar nuclei, 3 small antipodal cells & an egg apparatus consisting of 2 synergids & an egg
    - - producing a large vegetative cell & a small lens-shaped generative cell
        
        generative cell divides & forms 2 sperm cells
        
        microgametophyte: consists of the vegetative cell & 2 sperm cells
        
        pollen tube absorbs nutrients from the stigma & grows downward through the style toward the ovary
  - - - receptacle where the other flower parts are attached
    - - important in attracting the correct pollinators
      - sepals lowermost & outermost of the 4 floral appendages
        
        calyx all sepals together
      - petals above the sepals on the receptacle & together they make up the corolla
    - - filament the stalk
      - anther where pollen is produced
        
        4 long columns of tissue become distinct as some cells enlarge & prepare for meiosis
        
        pollen microspores separated & expanded to a characteristic shape, & form a resistant wall
    - - stigma catches pollen grains
      - style elevates the stigma to a useful position
      - ovary where megaspores are produced
        
        ovules regions of tissue that bear small structures
        
        has a short stalk called, funiculus that carries water & nutrients from the placenta to the ovules by a small vascular bundle
        
        nucellus central mass of parenchyma
      - many carpal are usually fused together to form a single compound structure: pistil
    - - heteromorphic generations gametophytes do not resemble sporophytes at all
        
        complex life cycle with at least 3 distant plants (1 sporophyte, 2 gametophytes)
    - - complete flowers have all 4 appendages
      - incomplete flowers lacking one or more of the appendages
    - - fruit ovule develops into a seed, the ovary matures
        
        pericarp entire fruit wall (any # of layers)
        
        endocarp innermost layer; may be tough like the stones/pit of a cherry or may be thin
        
        mesocarp middle layer; flesh
        
        exocarp outer layer; skin or peel
  - - - 2 basic arrangements
        
        determinate inflorescences
        
        only a limited potential for growth bc the inflorescences apex is converted to a flower, ending its possibilities for continued growth
        
        indeterminate inflorescences
        
        the outermost flowers open first, & new flowers are being initiated at the apex
      - 1 small flower may be overlooked, but not a hundred close together
    - - positions of flowers to other flowers, leaves, trunk
        
        distance from an open
        
        uncluttered flight path for pollinators
        
        height from the ground
  - - - the probability of a pollen grain reaching a stigma is much improved if it is carried by an insect
        
        coevolution a flower becoming adapted for visitation by a particular insect & the insect for efficient exploitation of the flower
      - fruit is eaten by the animal & the seeds are then dispersed
    - - in general, wind-pollinated individuals produce up several thousand small flowers
        
        pollination is aided by the growth pattern of the plant population
    - - self-pollination pollination of a carpel by pollen from the same flower or another flower on the same plant
    - - dioecious the species of dioecy
        
        dioecy a species may have individuals that produce only staminate flowers & others that produce carpellate flowers
      - monoecious species of monoecy
        
        monoecy condition of having staminate flowers located on the same plant as carpellate flowers
      - essential organs stamen & carpels; essential bc they produce the critically important spores
        
        if either organ is missing, the sexual reproduction is dramatically affected
        
        nonessential organs sepals & petals do not produce spores
        
        imperfect flowers both essential organs missing; also it is an incomplete flower
        
        perfect flower a flower with both essential organs, even if it is lacking sepal, petals or both
  - - - indehiscent fruit opposite of dehiscent fruit
      - dehiscent fruit break open & release the seeds
      - dry fruit not typically eaten by natural seed-distributing animals
      - fleshy fruits are eaten during the natural seed distribution process
    - - aggregate fruit separated carpels of one gynoecium fuse during development
        
        multiple fruit during development all of the individual fruits of an inflorescence fuse into one fruit
        
        legumes fruit
        
        ex: beans & peas
        
        dry & inedible but do not fuse to the seeds
- - - - primary walls are thin mostly
      - ability to be deformed by pressure/ tension, & to retain the shape
      - cells are present in elongated shoot tips (ex: grape vines)
    - - only have primary walls that are thin
        
        parenchyma tissue most common type of cell & tissue constituting almost all soft parts of a plant
        
        soft leaves, petals, fruits, & seeds
        
        chlorenchyma cells are parenchyma cells involved in photosynthesis
        
        glandular cells that secrete nectar, fragrance, resins, mucilage, and oils
        
        transfer cells mediate short distance transport of material by means of a large, extensive plasma membrane
    - - mechanical sclerenchyma subdivided into long fibers & short sclereids
        
        sclerenchyma cells develop from parenchyma cells
      - sclereids short & cuboidal. Masses form hard & impenetrable surfaces
      - fibers long & flexible most often found in areas where strength & flexibility are important
  - - - phloem distributes sugars & minerals
        
        sieve tube members parenchyma cells
      - xylem conducts water & minerals
        
        tracheids conducting cells
        
        vessel elements conducting cells
    - - primary xylem part of the primary plant body
      - pith a region of parenchyma
      - collateral xylem & phloem strands run parallel
      - primary phloem storage parenchyma & mechanical sclerenchyma
    - - stoma made up of the guard cells & stomatal pore
- - - - sources sites from which water & nutrients are transported
        
        actively transported within sources are species , sugars that are AT into sieve elements
      - sinks sites that receive transported phloem sap & are extremely diverse
  - - - cohesion-tension hypothesis as water is pulled upward by transpiration, its molecules cohere sufficiently to withstand the tension
  - - - the action spectrum opening & closing needs to match the absorption spectrum
  - - - when opened K+ are actively transported from surrounding cells to guard cells
      - water enters & leaves at about the same rate
    - - rate at which material can be transported depends on the number of molecular pumps present
      - specialized TC have smooth walls on outer surface w/ numerous ridge like outgrowths on inner surface
        
        provides much larger surface area to transport more materials
  - - - osmosis diffusion through a membrane
    - - differentially/ selectively permeable allow only certain substances to pass through
      - freely permeable allow all solutes to diffuse through them
      - completely impermeable membranes do not allow anything to pass through (isolation barrier)
- - - - seed ferns: any woody plant w/ fern like foliage that bore seeds on its leaves
        
        long-lived vascular cambium that produce both xylem & phloem
        
        wood was manoxylic, much softer & less dense than wood of conifers & progymnosperms
    - - cycadeoidophyta (cycadeoids, all extinct)
      - pteridospermophyta (seed ferns, all extinct)
      - cycadophyta (cycads, extant)
  - - - differ from cycads in subtle details; stomatal complexes & leaf trace organization
        
        each ovule had a stalk,& megasporangium was urrounded by integument that extended out into long micropyle
        
        individual cones contain both microsporophylls & megasporophylls
  - - - 2 shoot types w/ characteristic leaf types
        
        long shoots tiny papery leaves
        
        short shoot axils, produce long needle leaves
    - - compound cones seed cones; shoots w/ axillary buds
        
        cone bracts leaves beared on short axis rather than sporophylls
        
        each bract has an axillary bud that bears megasporophylls
        
        inside a megasporangium, a single large megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis
        
        only 1 of the 4 cells survive as the megaspore
      - simple cones pollen cones; single short unbranched axis bears microsporophylls
    - - suspensor instead, some of the first cells elongate & push other cells deep into the megamaetophyte
        
        proembryo other cells being pushed by a suspensor; develop into the embryo
  - - - produce seed & pollen cones on separate plants
        
        always dioecious
    - - long & wide tracheids, rays are massive
        
        most support is provided by the tough leaf bases
        
        prominent pith contains secretory canals
  - - - Welwitschia short, wide stem & only 2 leaves, but leaves grow from perennially from a basal meristem, becoming increasingly longer
      - Gnetums mostly vines or small shrubs w/ broad leaves similar to dicots
      - Ephedra tough shrubs & bushes, leaves are reduced & scale like
      - all 3 have vessel wood
        
        pollen cones are compound & contain small bracts
        
        seed cones are compound & contain extra layers of tissue around the ovules (interpreted as an extra integument, bract, or sporophyll)
  - - - ovules occur in pairs at the end of a short stalk & several sporangiophores that each have 2 microsporangia
      - no cone production
      - reproduction: dioecious
      - short shoots bear most of the leaves & long shoots
- - - - leptosporangiate ferns what most people are familiar with
        
        at each node a leaf trace diverges from siphonostele
        
        leaf gap a small segment of vascular cylinder as just parenchyma left behind from leaf trace
        
        sori located on the underside of the leaf; clusters of sporangia where meiosis occurs
- - - - cannot live with oxygen
      - glycolysis
      - substrate-level phosphorylation
      - ethanol is formed
      - w/o oxygen (fermentation)
      - obligate anaerobes
    - - requires oxygen
        
        cannon live without oxygen
        
        glycolysis
        
        electron transport chain
        
        Citric Acid Cycle
        
        obligate aerobes
    - - can live with or without oxygen
      - can complete both aerobic & anaerobic respiration
    - - occurs only when RuBP carboxylase adds oxygen rather than carbon dioxide to ribose 1,5- biphosphate
    - - heat lost for warm blooded mammals helps regulate homeostasis
      - heat lost for fungi/bacteria is inefficient in the production of ATP
  - - - beta oxidation
  - - - can be shunted into nucleic acid metabolism
        
        which can form the basis of RNA & DNA (nucleotides)
    - - starting material in the synthesis of may compounds
  - - - near by cells may have a much lower rate of respiration
      - active metabolism cells have high level aerobic respiration
      - meristematic cells produce ribose by means of pentose phosphate pathway
      - respiration is the source of ATP for all parts of a cell other than chloroplast
    - - temperature
      - lack of oxygen
        
        variations occur in a cell's access to oxygen
- - - - an atom does not carry as many electrons as it could
        
        oxidation reaction
        
        increases the positive charge of an atom
        
        oxidized compounds
        
        often contain a great deal of oxygen
    - - electrons being added to an atom
        
        reduction reaction
        
        reduced positive change on an atom
        
        reduced compounds
        
        contain hydrogen
    - - NAD+ and NADP+ are molecules used to help with reduction
        
        oxidizing agents: taking electrons away from other molecules
      - redox potential: a molecule's tendency to accept or donate electrons
      - NADH and NADPH: strong reducing agents
        
        powerful tendency to place electrons onto other molecules
    - - plastoquinones: pick 2 electrons and bind two protons
        
        hydrophobic
      - cytochromes: small protein that contains a cofactor that holds an iron atom
      - plastocyanin: small protein that carriers electrons on a copper atom
  - - - electromagnetic radiation spectrum
        
        gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet light, infrared, microwaves, radio wave, visible light
    - - chlorophyll a absorbs only some red and some blue, letting most of the rest pass through
        
        action spectrum
        
        shows which wavelengths are most effective at powering a photochemical process
        
        fluorescence release of light by a pigment
        
        absorption spectrum
        
        graph that shows which wavelengths are most strongly absorbed by a pigment
        
        photochemical process
        
        the action spectrum of a process must match the absorption spectrum of the pigments responsible
        
        accessory pigments
        
        molecules that strongly absorb wavelengths not absorbed by chlorophyll a
        
        resonance
        
        hundreds of chlorophylls act like one and the energy absorbed by one can rapidly transfer to another part in a different part of the complex
        
        allows chlorophyll b to absorb wavelengths that chlorophyll a would miss
        
        then transfer the energy to chlorophyll a for use
        
        antenna complex protein that binds 14 molecules of chlorophyll a & b & 4 carotenoids.
        
        reaction center energy is transferred here when light strikes any pigment of an antenna complex
        
        photosynthetic unit all pigment carriers working together are packed into this granule
    - - contains little chlorophyll b
        
        P700 chlorophylls of the reaction center that absorb red light of 700 nm most efficiently
        
        absorbed by an electron receptor "F(x)"
        
        passed onto ferredoxin (small protein)
        
        passed to an enzyme ferredoxin-NADP+ reductase (converts NADP+ to NADPH)
    - - contains almost equal levels of chlorophyll a & b
        
        work backward from photosystem I
    - - ATP & NADPH interact w/ CO2 & produce carbohydrate
        
        Step 1: acceptor molecule reacts w/ CO2
        
        molecule breaks into 2 identical molecules 3-phosphoglycerate (3 carbon)
        
        Step 2: ATP donates a phosphate group to the 3-phosphoglycerate converts 1,3- diphosphoglycerate that gets reduced to3- phosphoglyceraldehype (PGAL)
        
        enzyme carried out of this reaction RuBP carboxylase (RUBISCO)
  - - - energy trapped in the Earth/ atmosphere system and warms the planet
        
        green house gases
        
        carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide
    - - wind patterns changing
      - ozone blocks ultraviolet radiation
      - ocean surface water is warmer
        
        increased rainfall & distance it travels
      - Antarctic snow caps melting
        
        rising sea levels
        
        increase in flooding of rivers
        
        marine algae cannot live in the freshwater layer being created in the ocean
        
        forced into lower & darker waters where they cannot photosynthesize well
        
        slows growth of algae & process of the food web
  - - - refers to light intensity or brightness
    - - refers to the colors or wavelengths it contains
    - - is the point the level of at which photosynthesis matches respiration
    - - number of hours per day that sunlight is available
- - - - ray initials short & more/less cuboidal
        
        produce short cells, mostly just storage parenchyma
      - fusiform initials long, tapered cells
        
        nonstoried cambium cells irregularly, w/o any horizontal pattern
        
        storied cambium cells occur in regular horizontal rows
  - - - axial system derived from the fusiform initials
        
        hardwoods contain large amounts of fibers, making them strong, tough, & useful for construction
        
        softwoods few or no fibers & have a softer consistency
    - - ray tracheids in addition to ray parenchyma cells these may occur
        
        horizontal, rectangular cells that have secondary walls, circular bordered pits, & protoplasts
  - - - radial system the same ray initials of xylem rays produce phloem rays
        
        phloem ray consist only of parenchyma cells that are used for storage (even more important here than in xylem)
  - - - growth ring when a tree fails to grow & produce a ring
        
        diffuse porous vessels located throughout growth rings
        
        ring porous vessels are restricted (mainly in early wood)
    - - sapwood lighter, moister outer wood region
    - - all tissues outside the innermost cork cambium comprise
        
        inner bark all secondary bwtn the vascular cambium & innermost cork cambium
      - cork cambium/phellogen all cells are cuboidal & inner cell almost always remain cork cambium
        
        periderm all layers of cork cells & phelloderm (if any)
        
        cork cell/phellem cell outer cell differentiates into this
        
        phelloderm cork cambium may produce a cell or two to the inside that mature into this layer of parenchyma
- - - - parental generation parents
        
        homozygous each parent has 2 identical alleles for this gene
    - - heterozygous two different alleles for this gene
        
        Punnett square proportion of gametes
    - - incomplete dominance neither parental trait dominates the other
  - - - linked 2 genes occurring close together on a chromosome, they usually do no undergo independent assortment during meiosis I but become linked
- - - - ideally & theoretically is a set of individuals closely related by decent from a common ancestor
      - genus closely related species are grouped together
        
        family composed of one, several, often many genera
        
        order, class, division & kingdom
        
        all lvls except for kingdom must have certain endings to indicate classification level
        
        monophyletic natural; all species in genus are related by a common ancestor
        
        polyphyletic unnatural; members may have evolved from different ancestors & resemble each other only as a result of convergent evolution
  - - - paraphyletic group one that does not contain all the descendants of the most common ancestor
      - apomorphy a feature present in one or several derived members of a group, but not present in the ancestral members
- - - - factors that cause gene pool to change
        
        natural selection individuals that are most adapted to an environment stay, & the less adapted do not
        
        accidents: events where an organism cannot adapt
        
        mutations: genomes are subjected to mutagenic factors, & mutations occur continually
        
        artificial selection process in which a human purposefully changes the allele frequency of a gene pool
  - - - attempts to model the origin of life using only known chemical & physical processes
      - chemicals produced chemosynthetically
        
        set of experiments that explain the theoretical possibilities of direct analysis of meteorites & lunar samples reveals what has actually happened in nonliving environments
    - - monomers present in early the ocean had to polymerize if life were to arise
    - - evolution of chlorophyll a & photosynthesis that liberates O2 had 2 consequences
        
        1) it allowed the world to rust 2) it created conditions that selected for the evolution of aerobic repiration
    - - chemosynthetic theory postulates a long series of slow, gradual transitions from completely inorganic to living bacteria
  - - - gene flow movement of alleles physically through space
    - - genetic drift gene pool can change rapidly & erratically
    - - as a consequence, the 2 may evolve to the point that they resemble each other strongly and have undergone convergent evolution
- - - - 2 types of habitat components
        
        abiotic nonliving & are physical phenomena: climate, soil, fires, floods, etc
        
        soil factors
        
        A horizon uppermost layer of horizon soil
        
        consists of litter & debris & it nutrients get washed to the next layer
        
        B horizon second layer of horizon soil
        
        materials from A horizon accumulate & is rich in nutrients
        
        C horizon third layer of horizon soil
        
        composed mostly of parent rock & rock fragments
        
        pioneers first plants that invade a new soil
        
        biotic living factors: the plant itself, other plants, animals, fungi, etc
        
        the plant just being in the habitat modifies the habitat
        
        niche species adapted to a particular set of conditions
        
        mutualism interaction is beneficial for both organisms
        
        competitive exclusion whichever species is less adapted is excluded from the ecosystem by superior competitors
        
        commensal relationships one species benefits & the other is unaffected
        
        predation relationship in which one species benefits & the other is harmed
  - - - energy flow/carbon flow plants are eaten -> energy & carbon compounds -> herbivore level -> carnivore level -> decomposers
- - - - gametophore growth begins when a spore germinates & sends out a long slender chlorophyllous cell
        
        chlorophyllous cell undergoes mitosis & produces a branched system of similar cells
        
        protonema the entire network
    - - antheridia sperms produced in microgametangia
        
        short stalk, outermost layer of sterile cells, & inner mass of cells differentiate into sperm cells
      - archegonia eggs occur in megagametangia
        
        hollow neck at maturity & single egg is located at base
        
        shaped like a vase w/ a long neck
      - bisexual species the antheridia & archegonia occur on the same gametophore
  - - - thallose liverworts
        
        show less resemblance to mosses
        
        not leafy, but rather flat & ribbon like or heart shaped & bilaterally symmetrical
      - leafy liverworts
        
        greatly resemble that of moss, thin leaves on a slender stem
        
        however liver leaves typically have 2 rounded lobes w/ no midrib & no conducting tissue
        
        leaves arranged in 3 clearly defined rows; 2 rows much larger than the 3rd
    - - liverwort gametophores can either be bisexual, producing antheridia & archegonia, or unisexual
        
        archegoniophores also are stalked, apex is a set of radiating fingers that project outward & droop downward
        
        antheridiophore umbrella-shaped outgrowth produced by male gametophores
    - - elaters within sporangium, some cells do not undergo meiosis but rather differentiate into these
        
        elongated cells w/ spring-shaped walls
  - - - superficially resemble liverworts, gamtophores of many species being ribbon shaped & thin, w/o a distinct stem or leaves
        
        striking feature is the single large chloroplast on each cell as opposed to numerous small plastids
    - - archegonia are formed from superficial cells, archegonia do not completely surround the egg
        
        egg lies below a short neck & neck canal but is surrounded by vegetative thallus cells
      - 3-4 protonema cells produced before gametophore phase is est.
        
        gametophtytes are always thin, at least along the edges, only the center is more thick by 4-5 cells thick
      - antheridial initials are not surface cells on hornwort gametophytes
        
        instead a special chamber is formed near the upper surface
    - - hornworts have a foot embedded in gametophore tissue, but there is no seta/discrete sporangium
        
        newly formed cells are pushed upward, grow, differentiate, mature, die
        
        simultaneously being replaced by more cells from basal meristem