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SUSS SSC 113 SOCIAL SELF UNIT 2 (Chapter 1 Social and Group Identities Pt…
SUSS SSC 113 SOCIAL SELF UNIT 2
Chapter 1 Social and Group Identities Pt 1
Social Identity Theory
Social identity theory is a theory of intergroup relations, which attempts to explain
how we
develop a sense of group membership and belonging
, and as a result our social identities.
how and why intergroup discrimination occurs
in society and how marginalised
groups cope with it.
is based on the
assumption that society is hierarchically
structured into different social groups that stand in power and status to each other, often in competition for resources, prestige and power.
Two main concepts of Social Identity Theory
Social categorisation
refers to the
process in which we mentally segment our world into different social groups
or categories and locate ourselves and those around us in these social groups or categories
These
social categories
provide members with a definition and evaluation of
who they are
and a description and evaluation of
what this entails
.
As we socially categorise our world,
we divide the world into in-groups and out-groups
. We consider those who are within the same groups as us as in-group while classifying those that are not, as belonging to the out-group.
Social comparison
According to social identity theory,
we strive for a positive self-concept
in order to maintain or enhance our self-esteem.
In an intergroup context,
this positive self-image is garnered through social comparisons
, we evaluate and compare the social categories that we place ourselves and others in on relevant dimensions.
Thus, in every intergroup context,
people strive to not only gain a positive self-image but also to make the context as unambiguous and meaningful as possible.
This process of social comparison therefore also contributes to an understanding of the social world and the place of the in-group within that world.
Thus, members of more
powerful groups
would normally
have positive social identities
while members of
subordinate groups
would possess
negative social identities
especially if they accept the values of society
There are
two main strategies that subordinate group members use to cope
with this situation, depending on their belief systems.
Social Mobility
Social Change
Social Mobility
They can choose the
social mobility route
because they believe that the
boundaries between groups are fluid and permeable
and that members can move from one group to the other through a combination of talent and effort.
Social Change
if they believe that group
boundaries are fixed and closed
, they will adopt a strategy of social change. In this situation,
Legitimate Status Quo
if members of the subordinate group perceive that the status quo is legitimate, they would
try to re-evaluate the position of their group vis-à-vis the dominant group
(e.g. they might tell themselves that although the dominant group is richer, they - the subordiante group - are more honest).
Illegitimate Status Quo
If members of the subordinate group
do not perceive the status quo as legitimate
, they might choose to compete with the dominant group and real
attempts will be made to change the relative positions of these groups
(e.g. through trade union negotiations, strikes or revolutions).
Social Identity
Social Identity is defined as
"that part of the individual’s self-concept which derives from his knowledge of his membership of a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership."
Culture
Definition of Culture
Culture refers to the complex and diverse system of
shared
knowledge and practices among people. It is the mental frame through which we view society and our relations with others. It is our worldview.
It consists of our beliefs about how the world works as well as how other members of our society work.
It is a shared identity which is learned and reinforced through socilisation
Cultural Knowledge
Members of a culture share similar cultural knowledge which refers to the mental representations of culture and comprises of the values, beliefs, stereotypes, implicit assumptions, social norms and practical skills that are associated with particular groups that we belong to.
It tells group members what is important and what attitudes and behaviour are appropriate. Culture is therefore not innate but is learned and reinforced through experience.
How culture is incorporated in the formation of self-identity.
Culture and Self-identity
Culture affects how we conceptualise self, others, as well as groups. The conceptualisation of the ‘self’ and the concept of ‘self’ vary across cultures.
The
different degree of importance different cultures place on the individual and the group,
self-criticism, self-esteem and achievement all have an effect on the self-concepts held by the people living in those cultures.
Culture and social identity are very much intertwined and cultural knowledge at the group level is very much tied to the way that social groups and organisations are structured in the society.
Individualistic culture
A person raised in an individualistic culture will normally define the self as being based on a central set of characteristics or traits, regardless of the situation that reflects one’s unique positive attributes.
Here, the sense of self is grounded in the view of self as autonomous and separate from other people.
Personal uniqueness and self-expression are prized characteristics.
Collectivistic culture
A person who is raised in a collectivistic culture on the other hand, will define the self-concept in terms of relationships within the situation and views the self-concept as a changeable and evolving.
Here, the sense of self is grounded in the person’s connection to and relationships with other people. Belonging, fitting in and acting appropriately according to roles and norms so as to promote group cohesiveness and harmony are prized characteristics.
Individulatisc self vs Collective Self
The individualistic self is an independent self while the collectivistic sense of self is an interdependent self.
However in both cases, people will strive for a coherent integrated sense of self.
Language
Language is important for the development of the self as we learn about the social world through objective self-awareness and symbolic self-awareness. Only when we are able to name an object are we able to make reference to and talk about that object even when it is not present.
In addition, when we are able to give names to ourselves and those around us, we are able to put ourselves in the shoes of others and see ourselves as others see us (subjective self-awareness). These steps are vital for the formation of the self.
Language is also important for socialisation and the learning of our culture. Language shapes perception, and in the process, action.
SapirWhorf
Hypothesis (Theory of Linguistic Relativity)
Premise 2:
Language structure influences our understanding of the environment
.
Our understanding of our environment is to an extent dependent on our ability to name it. if we do not have a name for an object (in this case, a shade of blue), we do not differentiate this object from others
Conclusion: If language shapes perception, and perception shapes behaviour, then
language shapes behaviour
.
Premise 1:
Higher level thought depends on language.
Through language, we are able to express abstract concepts, for example, beauty, justice,
Culture Stereotype
Reflects preconceived notion
Stereotypes and our on life
The anonymity of our internet means that we use preconceived notions and biases yo form impressions of others.
We often choose the easiest route to an impression
Parody deconstructs our preconcived notion
Self-Categorisation Theory
Points to note
Derived from SIT(social cat.).
Explains how different social identities are formed.
Focuses on intra group relations (within group).
holds that behaviour in a group depends on how one categorises the self at that moment
Intra group relations
self-categorisation theory proposes that
the functioning of the self
at any given moment
depends on how one categorises the self within a group,
in particular on those dimensions or categories in which people are seen as similar to the self as opposed to those that are different
The self can be classified either as an individual or a group member depending on how salient individual or group membership is at that moment.
Identity salience
The
salience
of a particular group identity is
based on how accessible a categorisation is to an individual
, and how well it fits the
social context
. (e.g.: when discussing political issues in a conversation, nationality may become more salient than gender or school affiliation.)
self-categorisation provides a guide as to which aspects of the self are the
most salient guides for behaviour
Two main levels of self categorisation
Collective level of self-categorisation
The collective level highlights
similarities among group members
(e.g. Singaporean, Uni student). People categorise at this level when their group membership is made salient, either by their own motives and/or by the context that they find themselves in
e.g. when we find ourselves in the midst of a group of like-minded others such as when we are watching a football match together with other football fans.
Self-categorisation at the collective level, when
taken to the extreme can lead to depersonalisation
Depersonalisation
Depersonalisation refers to the
process
in which people
perceive themselves mainly in terms of the group
and as interchangeable members of the group
rather than as unique individuals
with individual differences.
We see ourselves as one with the group rather than as distinct from the group. Group members are similar and interchangeable.
Depersonalisation involves a change from the personal to the group level of identity
.
Self-categorisation at an individual level
Self-categorisation at the individual level
highlights differences among group members.
People categorise at this level when their
status as individuals is made salient
. When this happens we think of ourselves in terms of the
qualities we possess that differentiate us from other in-group members
.
we view ourselves as unique individuals within the group but the individual is still very much part of the group
Social Identity Online
Selective Self-Presentation
We are more conscious of the image we construct of ourselves, often by way of selective self-presentation. This is possible because there is less nonverbal “leakage”, enabling us to
control the impressions given
.
It is harder to control our impressions offline, as it is impossible to ‘edit’ or ‘delete’ verbal and non-verbal expressions.
Thus, a reallocation to online communication to allow for better control in impression management and interpersonal exchanges.
Social Individuation and Deindividuation Effects (SIDE)
Promoting deindividuation
Individuating nonverbal cues
such as facial features, hair and skin colour or speech accent tend to
help us differentiate people
.
The absences
of such cues on the online platform
lead us to form judgments
based on the little information we know about the person on the other side of the computer.
These judgements are often
based on the stereotypes and prejudices
that we hold about the groups that he/she belongs to. The evoking of stereotypical views
promotes “deindividuation” or depersonalisation
whereby we see ourselves and others as members of a group rather than unique individuals on a collective level
Anonymity: diminished responsibility
Another implication of the SIDE model is that with depersonalisation, there is also a diminished sense of responsibility and accountability. We can see this in forums in which conversation descends into
personal attacks
and insults because they are
not being held accountable
for what they write.
Depersonalisation can be especially dangerous among groups that foster hatred towards other groups.
Chapter 2 Social and Group Identities Pt 2
Varieties of Group Identities
Ethnicity
Ethnicity refers to the
assumption of a common heritage
that might be real or assumed.
It alludes tro a sense of belonging. It is a basic identity that we acquire early in childhood and which forms an integral part of our personal identity.
This may be based upon many factors including:
Religion
Common ancestry
History
Kinship
Religion
language
shared territory
nationality Etc.
.
Ethnicity, Differential power and stratification
When ethnicity is used as a mechanism of social stratification,
membership in an ethnic group
is the criteria by which scarce resources are awarded.
This occurs when there is some degree of
differential power present
, so that one ethnic group is able to impose its will upon another (Social dominance theory).
In addition, ethnic stratification comes into play when there is
competition for a common goal
such as competition for power, influence, wealth or territory
Ethnicity as a social consturct
Many scholars, notably Max Weber and Fredrik Barth are of the opinion that ethnicity
is a social construct
, in that ethnicity is constantly being negotiated and renegotiated by both external ascription and internal self-identification.
Social scientists have thus focused on
how, when, and why different markers of ethnic identity become salient
. Depending on the situation, different markers of ethnic identity can become more salient
Class
Class is determined by socioeconomic status, which is determined by one’s occupation, education level and income.
Socioeconomic Class
One way of dividing society into different social classes would be through the level of income and wealth that an individual possesses. This classification is
based on property relations or ownership of wealth
The
middle class
who are nonowners of wealth but who have advantageous life chances due to their market capacity from
non-manual work
.
The
working class
which is made up of non-owners of wealth who have
disadvantageous life chances due to their market capacity
from manual skills and finally at the bottom of the society are the poor who are grossly disadvantaged due to their weak or marginal position in the labour market
The
upper class
would be comprised of those who own the means of production and who have very
advantageous life chances through wealth
.
These are the people who own huge capital assets and share incomes.
Occupational class
Another form of classifying society into classes would be to distinguish between occupational groups. Here we have the blue-collar worker who is the manual worker and the white-collar worker who is a non-manual worker
The white-collar categorisation is further broken down by the terms of their employment conditions ranging from higher managerial and professional to routine occupations with hourly pay or piecework.
Gender
The socialisation into
gender roles
and their accompanying stereotypes is often a
cquired from the agents of socialisation
such as (i.e. parents, playground and the media). Often this is
achieved through observational learning and role-play
.
Children seem to treat gender as an important basis of categorising their social world and they often treat the sexes as very different from each other. They quickly form gender-based stereotypes and attach new characteristics to the different genders.
Gender Salience
The salience of gender as a social category varies with context.
It depends on
how
accessible that categorisation
is in the mind of a person or the
readiness of the person to encode and organise information in a gender-based manner
. This can be due to past experiences which influence the extent to which the person identifies with the group or see the group as central or valued. Hence individual difference in gender salience is related to gender-based intergroup processes with those individuals who have higher levels of gender group identification giving more favourable evaluations to same-sex targets than those who have lower levels of gender group identification.
According to social identity theory,
in-group favouritism arises
from a
desire to achieve a positive social identity
in order to enhance or
maintain self-esteem
.
Gender salience declines with age. This age-related decline in gender stereotyping is linked to cognitive development and children with higher cognitive and classification skills were less likely to gender stereotype. This decline of own-sex favouritism declines further into adolescence. This decline in own-sex favouritism highlights an important distinction between gender and other social categories and distinguishes gender from many other social groups.
Nationalism
Nationalism and nation building are fundamentally synthetic processes. They represent men’s convictions and loyalties and solidarities.
Gellner argues that the nation emerges in the process of industrialisation and modernisation. A modern economy requires a certain amount of cultural homogeneity to function. Hence, the need for a public education system, which tends to
overcome and blur the distinctions and divisions between individuals and groups.
The result is the creation of a nation. It is therefore men’s recognition of belonging to a nation that turns them into a nation.
2 components of the modern nation
Civic and Ethnic
The first is the
civic or territorial component
and is concerned with the territory, economy, legal system and educational spheres of the nation. This, he says, fits in with the myth of the modern nation and its requirements for an industrial base.
The second component of the
ethnic or genealogical component
is preoccupied with the idea of ancestry and common origin, a common history and customs.
a
nation
is a named human population sharing historical and cultural view and possessing a demarcated territory, common economy and common legal rights and duties”
Social Stratification
Social stratification refers to the
division of a population into unequal layers or strata with respect to limited resources
. Such division is often based on the material and cultural differences between people
e.g. anatomical differences, differences in skin colour, in place of birth or in accents.
Based on these differences, groups in society are ranked and are given access to different levels of power, status and prestige.
These different groups are
often in competition with each other for these scarce resources
. Many of these differences can be seen as forms of social categorisation that are reproduced through everyday interactions. As such, the individual’s relationship with society is often affected by social stratification.
Some examples of social stratification that are commonly seen is today’s society are that of gender, class, ethnicity, and nationalism.
Situational Identities
When does it arise
Situational identity
arises when an individual construct and presents any one of a number of possible social
identities, depending on the situation
: a religion, an ethnicity or lifestyle as the context deems a particular choice desirable or appropriate.
Situational identity is a
dynamic
one, in contrast to that of “fixed identity”. In the real world, people easily switch between different situational identities
Multiple istutaional Identity
Individuals hold multiple identities and will choose to engage the identity most appropriate for that
particular context.
With little consciousness, people quickly evaluate the context of a given situation and determine which segment of their identity to convey.
Purpose
Situational identity is displayed for mainly instrumental purposes.
(i.e. express social solidarity or distance from a particular ethnic group, gain an advantage in a particular situation or to improve one’s social status by identifying with a particular reference group).
Situated identities
are the attributions that are made about participants in a particular setting as a consequence of their actions. Not only is this situated identity essential as a basis for initiating interaction, it is crucial for guiding and anticipating the course of that interaction.
Individual/Group Boundaries and Dynamics
Personality identity
Personal identity is formed when we are able to successfully
differentiate ourselves from those around us,
when we are able to see ourselves as unique. This is achieved by
contrasting ourselves against comparable others
.
In addition, personal identity is often an incorporation of
different elements
taken from the different social groups that we belong to. In this sense, personal identity can be seen as being
dependent on group membership
and individuals construct personal identity by using their group memberships as a resource.
However, social consensus is still important in the formation of personal identity as how successfully we can differentiate ourselves from others is also dependent on what identities are permissible within the group by others in the group as well as by the boundaries that are imposed by the norms and culture
Social or group identity
is developed via interaction with other group members (in group and out group). Through these interactions, group members develop a common concept or sense of who they are, what they stand for as well as a collective understanding of a shared reality.
It is only through
social consensus
that the guidelines of in-group behaviour are formed and it is through
social validation
that they are perpetuated and reified. Thus, through communication and interaction, regulate and shape the group members’ self-conceptions and actions.
personal identity is shaped through membership within the group while at the same time, the group identity is shaped through the interactions between the individuals that make up the group.