Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

Course Mind Map (Chpt. 22 (Concepts (Angiosperms (Flowering plants),…

- - - - Angiosperms have numerous methods of asexual reproduction
      - Fragmentation
        
        The ability of large spreading or vining plant grows to several meters in length, and individual parts become self-sufficient by establishing adventitious roots
        
        Most common method
    - - Inflorescences and Pollination
        
        Inflorescence
        
        Flowers that are grouped together
        
        Two Basic Groups:
        
        Determinate inflorescences
        
        Has only a limited potential for growth because the the inflorescence apex is converted to a flower
        
        Indeterminate inflorescences
        
        Growth isn't limited by a plant's own genetic development program
        
        Pollination
        
        Is an important factor because it determines the number of healthy, viable seedlings that are produced
  - - - Flower Structure
        
        Sepals
        
        The lowermost and outermost of the four floral appendages
        
        Petals
        
        The appendages, usually colored on a flower, often involved in attracting pollinators
        
        Stamens
        
        Referred to as the "male" part
        
        Two Parts:
        
        Filament
        
        The stalk of a stamen
        
        Anther
        
        The portion of a stamen that contains sporogenous tissue which produces microspores
        
        Carpels
        
        Organ of a flower that contains ovules and is involved in the production of megaspores, seeds, and fruits
  - - - Flower Structure and Cross-Pollination
        
        Monoecious
        
        The condition in which a species has imperfect flowers, but both are located on the same sporophyte
        
        Ex. Melons, squash, and pumpkins
        
        Cross-Pollination
        
        The pollination of a carpel by pollen from a different individual
        
        Self-pollination
        
        The pollination of a carpel by pollen from the same flower
        
        Dioecious
        
        The condition in which a species has two types of sporophyte, one with stamens and one with carpels
        
        Ex. Marijuana, dates, willows, and papaya
        
        Essential organs
        
        Important for producing spores
        
        Nonessential organs
        
        Doesn't produce spores
    - - Fruit Types and Seed Dispersal
        
        True Fruits and Accessory Fruits
        
        True fruit
        
        Contain only ovarian tissue
        
        Accessory fruit
        
        Contain nonovarian tissue
        
        Simple fruit
        
        A fruit that develops from a single ovary or the fused ovaries of a flower
        
        Aggregate fuit
        
        Develops from the separate carpels of one gynoecium fusing
        
        Multiple fruit
        
        Develops from individual fruits of an inflorescence fusing into one fruit
        
        Classification of Fruit Types
        
        Dry fruit
        
        Not eaten by the natural seed-distributing animals
        
        Dehiscent fruits
        
        Break open and release seeds
        
        Indehiscent fruits
        
        Don't break open or release seeds
- - - - Flowering plants
    - - Plants with naked seeds
    - - Seed plants
    - - Woody plants
  - - - Gnetums
        
        Mostly vines or small shrubs with broad leaves similar to dicots
        
        Found mostly in southeast Asia, tropical Africa, and the Amazon Basin
        
        30 species
      - Ephedra
        
        Tough shrubs and bushes
        
        40 species
        
        Found mostly in northern Mexico, southwestern US, and dry mountains in South America
      - Welwitschia mirabilis
        
        Have short, wide stem and only two leaves, but leaves grow from a basal meristem
        
        Only species in the genus
        
        Found only in the deserts of South Africa or in cultivation
  - - - Usually short plants less than 1 or 2 m tall, but Macrozamia can reach 18 m
      - Produce seed and pollen cones on seperate plants
      - Contains 100 species
      - Found mostly in Cuba, Mexico, Australia, southeast Asia or Africa
  - - - Progymnosperms
        
        Contain a vascular cambium with both secondary xylem and phloem
        
        Gave rise to conifers, cycads, and other gymnosperms
  - - - Seed ferns
        
        Any woody plant with fern-like foliage that bore seeds instead of clusters of sporgania on its leaves
      - 3 Divisions:
        
        Pteridospermophyta
        
        Seed ferns
        
        Cycadophyta
        
        Cycads
        
        Cycadeoidphyta
        
        Cycadeoids
  - - - Cones contain both microsporophylls and megasporophylls
      - Microsporophylls are located below the cluster of megasporophylls and curved upward, enveloping the megasporophylls
- - - - Nonvascular Plants
        
        These plants have neither vascular tissue nor seeds
        
        Nonvascular plants were the first true plants to be discovered
        
        Ex. Mosses, liverworts, and hornworts
      - Vascular Cryptograms
        
        Ex. Clubmosses, scouring rushes, and ferns
        
        These plants have vascular tissue but not seeds
      - Spermatophytes
        
        Ex. Cycads, conifers, angiosperms
        
        These plants have both vascular tissue and seeds
  - - - Their bodies are composed of true parenchyma
      - Mostly terrestrial and have a cuticle over much of their bodies
      - Gametophytes are larger and occur inside pollen grains and ovules
      - Sporophytes are much smaller and have leaves and roots
  - - - Mosses
        
        Occur in all parts of the world and in almost every environment
        
        Morphology
        
        Gametophores
        
        The leafy stem of many moss plants that grow close together, tightly appressed and forming dense mounds
        
        Water Transport
        
        Hydroids
        
        Conduct water and dissolved materials
        
        Leptoids
        
        Involved in carbohydrate conduction
        
        Rhizoids
        
        Involved in allowing plants to migrate laterally
  - - - Hornworts
        
        A group of small, inconspicuous thalloid plants that grow on moist soil, hidden by grasses and other herbs
        
        They are found on roadside cuts and stable eroded soil in shade
        
        A unique feature of the hornworts is the presence of a single large chloroplast
      - The gametophyte is parenchymatous. They're always thin on the edges, and the center is more than 5 cells thick
      - The sporophytes have a foot and basal meristem, which makes them different from other plants
  - - - Liverworts
        
        Small plants that have an alternation of heteromorphic generations
        
        Sporophyte Generation
        
        Elaters
        
        Single, elongate cells with spring-shaped walls. When the sporangium opens, the elaters uncoil pushing spores out
        
        All liverworts=homosporous
        
        2 Basic Groups of Hepatic Gametophytes:
        
        Thallose liverworts
        
        Leafy liverworts
        
        In both of these groups, the gametophyte phase is initiated when spores germinate and establish a small, temporary protonematal phase
- - - - Types of Wood Cells
        
        Radial System
        
        Developed from ray intials
        
        Ray Parenchyma
        
        Stores carbohydrates and other nutrients during dormant periods
        
        Upright Cells
        
        These cells are tall and typically have extensive cross-field pitting
        
        Procumbent Cells
        
        These cells are long and have little or no cross-field pitting
        
        Axial System
        
        Derived from the fusiform intials
        
        Axial Parenchyma
        
        Temporary reservoir of water
  - - - Late Wood
        
        Summer wood, have a low proportion of vessels
      - Early Wood
        
        Spring wood, have a high proportion of wide vessels
      - Diffuse Porous
        
        Has vessels located throughout it
        
        Ex. Yellow birch, aspen, sugar maple, and American holly
      - Ring Porous
        
        Species with vessels restricted to mainly early wood
        
        Ex. Red oak, sassafras, and honey locust
  - - - Phelloderm
        
        Parenchyma cells produced to the inside by the cork cambium, only a layer or two formed, phelloderm isn't present in all species
      - Periderm
        
        Consists of cork, cork cambium, and any enclosed tissues such as secondary phloem
      - Cork Cell
        
        Prevents loss of water and the entry of pathogens
  - - - Is a meristem that produces the secondary plant body
        
        Interfascicular Cambium
        
        The portion of the vascular cambium that develops from parenchyma cells located between vascular bundles
        
        Fascicular Cambium
        
        The portion of the vascular cambium that develops within the vascular bundle
- - - - Epidermis
        
        A single layer of parenchyma cells
        
        Interchange of material between the plant and its environment occurs here
        
        Protects plant tissues and prevents water loss
      - Cortex
      - Vascular Bundles
        
        Collateral
        
        Phloem
        
        Primary Phloem
        
        Xylem
        
        Primary Xylem
        
        Pith
        
        A region of parenchyma, similar to a cortex
      - Vascular Tissues
        
        Two Types
        
        Xylem
        
        Conducts water and minerals
        
        Phloem
        
        Distributes sugars and minerals
  - - - Three Classes of Cells
        
        Parenchyma
        
        Have thin cell walls
        
        Most common type of cell and tissue. It makes up the soft parts of the plant.
        
        Responsible for metabolism
        
        Subtypes
        
        Transfer Cells
        
        Have an increased surface area and transport nutrients
        
        Glandular Cells
        
        Transport sugar and minerals in, and transport the products out
        
        Chlorenchyma Cells
        
        Involved in photosynthesis
        
        Collenchyma
        
        Have thick cell walls in the corners
        
        Provide plastic support
        
        Sclerenchyma
        
        Have a thick primary and secondary cell wall
        
        Provide elastic support
  - - - Basic Stem Organization of Plants
        
        Nodes
        
        Where the leaf is attached
        
        Internodes
        
        Portion between the nodes, no leaves are attached
        
        Leaf Axial
        
        Area above the attachment point of the leaf
        
        Axillary Bud
        
        A bud located in a leaf axial, may be either a leaf or floral bud
        
        Bud Scales
        
        A specialized leaf that protects the unopened bud
        
        Terminal Bud
        
        Located at the extreme tip of a stem, only present in the winter as a dormant bud
      - Nutrient Storage
        
        Bulbs
        
        Short shoots that have thick fleshy leaves
        
        Rhizomes
        
        Have fleshy horizontal stems that allows plants to spread underground
        
        Corms
        
        Have thick stems with thin papery leaves
        
        Tubers
        
        Only grow for a short period of time and mainly store nutrients
      - Phyllotaxy- the arrangement of leaves on a stem
        
        Decussate
        
        Leaves are located in four rows
        
        Alternate
        
        One leaf per node
        
        Whorled
        
        Three or more leaves per node
        
        Spiral
        
        Each leaf is located to the side of the one below and above it
        
        Most common
        
        Distichous
        
        Leaves are located in two rows
        
        Opposite
        
        Two leaves per node
- - - - Aerobic: uses O2 :check:
        
        Electron Transport Chain
        
        Krebs Cycle
      - Anaerobic: doesn't use O2 :forbidden:
        
        Fermentation
        
        Alcohol
        
        Produced in
        
        Bread
        
        Wine
        
        Lactic Acid
        
        Produced in
        
        Muscle cells
        
        Dairy products
    - - Metabolism
        
        Photoautotroph
        
        Energy source
        
        Light
        
        Carbon source
        
        CO2
        
        Ex. Cyanobacteria, plants, and protist
        
        Photoheterotroph
        
        Ex. Purple and green bacteria
        
        Carbon source
        
        Organic compounds
        
        Energy source
        
        Light
    - - 3 Stages of Respiration
        
        Glycolysis
        
        Occurs in the cytoplasm
        
        Products
        
        Pyruvates(2)
        
        ATP(2)
        
        NADH
        
        Reactants
        
        ADP & ATP
        
        NAD+
        
        Glucose
        
        Krebs Cycle
        
        Occurs in the matrix
        
        Reactants
        
        NAD+
        
        FAD
        
        Pyruvate(2)
        
        Products
        
        CO2
        
        ATP
        
        NADH
        
        FADH2
        
        Electron Transport Chain
        
        Occurs in the inner membrane
        
        Reactants
        
        O2
        
        FADH2
        
        NADH
        
        Products
        
        H2O
        
        ATP
- - - - Anabolic metabolism
        
        converts simple molecules into complex molecules
    - - 2 Types of Reactions
        
        Light Dependent Reaction
        
        Takes place in
        
        Thylakoid
        
        Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation
        
        Produces
        
        2 more items...
        
        Cyclic Photophosphorylation
        
        Produces
        
        1 more item...
        
        Light Independent Reaction
        
        Takes place in
        
        Stroma
        
        Products
        
        glucose
    - - Pigments
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Carotenes
        
        No oxygen is present :forbidden:
        
        Xanthophylls
        
        Oxygen is present :check:
        
        Chlorophylls
        
        Allows the plant to obtain energy from light
        
        Chlorophyll a
        
        Chlorophyll b
    - - Environmental and Internal Factors
        
        Light
        
        Temperature
        
        CO2 concentration
        
        Water
- - - - Freely Permeable
        
        The membrane allows all solutes to diffuse through them
      - Completely Impermeable
        
        Don't allow anything to pass through, these are isolation barriers
      - Selectively Permeable
        
        Only certain substances are allowed to pass through
  - - - Xylem
        
        Impermeable
        
        Water and minerals are moved by a negative pressure
      - Phloem
        
        Hydrostatic pressure
        
        Transports sugars
        
        Permeable
  - - - Transfer Cells
        
        They have smooth walls on the outer surface and finger-like projections on the inside, they are involved in the transfer of materials
      - Motor Cells
        
        Cells that swell and shrink in plant organs capable of repeated, reversible movement, such as insect traps and petioles of leaves that undergo sleep movements
      - Guard Cells
        
        Epidermal cells that are capable of adjusting their size and shape, causing the stomatal pore to open when they swell and close when they shrink
  - - - The random motion of particles from regions of high concentrations to low concentrations
      - Osmosis
        
        Diffusion through a membrane
      - Active Transport
        
        The forced pumping of molecules from one side of a membrane to the other by a means of molecular pumps located in the membrane
- - - - Only a single character is analyzed and studied, the inheritance of other traits isn't considered
        
        Parental Generation
        
        Parents of the F1 generation
        
        F1 Generation
        
        The progeny of an experimental cross
        
        F2 Generation
        
        Offspring of the F1 generation
        
        Homozygous
        
        A diploid organism with two identical alleles for a particular gene
        
        Heterozygous
        
        A diploid organism with two different alleles for a particular gene
        
        Incomplete Dominance
        
        The phenotypes of both alleles of a heterozygote are expressed
  - - - Two genes are studied and analyzed
        
        Independent Assortment
        
        The distribution of one allele of one gene during meiosis is not linked to the distribution of either allele of the homologous gene
        
        Parental type Chromosomes
        
        A chromosome that after meiosis hasn't undergone crossing over
        
        Recombinant Chromosomes
        
        A chromosome that results from crossing over in meiosis, being composed of parts that parental and maternal homologs
  - - - Is any change in DNA
        
        Point Mutation
        
        Only affects a single nucleotide
        
        Deletion
        
        Involves the loss of DNA
        
        Insertion
        
        Involves insertion of the new DNA into a sequence of pre-existing DNA
        
        Inversion
        
        A portion of the DNA double helix is excised, turned end for end, and ligated into place with reverse order
- - - - 2 Fundamental Ways Speciation can Occur
        
        Phyletic Speciation
        
        One species gradually becomes so changed that it must be considered a new species.
        
        Divergent Speciation
        
        Some populations of a species evolve into a new, second species while other populations either continue relatively unchanged as the original, parental species, or evolve into a new, third species.
      - Is the conversion of one species or population of a species into a new species.
  - - - Reproductively Isolated
        
        2 Ways Reproductive Isolation can Occur
        
        Biological Reproductive Barriers
        
        Any biological phenomenon that prevents successful gene flow.
        
        Abiological Reproductive Barriers
        
        Any physical, nonliving feature that prevents two populations from exchanging genes.
        
        The inability of some members of a species to interbreed with other members through either biotic or abiotic reproductive barriers
  - - - Gene Pool
        
        The total number of alleles in all the same sex cells of all individual of a population.
        
        Factors that Cause the Gene Pool to Change
        
        Mutation
        
        Causes existing alleles to decrease in frequency, and new alleles increase.
        
        Artificial Selection
        
        Is the process in which humans purposefully change the allele frequency of a gene pool.
        
        Natural Selection
        
        The most significant factor causing gene pool changes, is described as survival of the fittest: those individuals that are most adapted to an environment survive, whereas those less adapted don't.
        
        2 conditions that must be met before natural selection can occur:
        
        The progeny must differ from each other in their types of alleles.
        
        The population must produce more offspring than can possibly grow and survive to maturity in that habitat.
      - Deals with the abundance of the different alleles within a population and the manner in which the abundance of a particular allele increases, decreases, or remains the same.
  - - - Gene Flow
        
        Three Ways Gene Flow can Occur
        
        Seed Dispersal
        
        Vegetative Propagation
        
        Pollen Transfer
        
        The movement of alleles physically through space
- - - - Communities that consist of more than one species.
      - Checklist
        
        A simple list of all the species known to exist in a particular area. Checklist are often prepared for parks and nature preserves.
      - Species-area Relationship
        
        The relationship between the size of an area and the number of species present, often, a small area has fewer species than a large area.
      - Species Abundance Distribution
        
        A plot of the number of species in a region into various abundance classes, a common result is that few species are extremely common, the rest are rare.
  - - - Facilitation
        
        The situation in which the presence of one species provides benefit to another although the first species is neither helped nor harmed by the situation. Ex. Trees provide sites where birds can nest, which helps the birds but does not affect the tree.
      - Mutualism
        
        An interaction of two species in which both species benefit.
  - - - Community
        
        All the populations of a region.
      - Climax Community
        
        A community in which the variety and relative abundance of organisms remain the same for many years. Climax communities are typically the result of succession.
      - Community Restoration
        
        Work and projects that are carried out with the objective of altering a group of organisms back to a more natural state.
      - Habitat Loss
        
        The result of any several processes that cause a habitat to be unable to support the species diversity it had when in a natural state. Clearing land for agriculture, cities, and mining all contribute to habitat loss, as does climate change.
      - Habitat Fragmentation
        
        The conversion of a large habitat into several smaller ones as various regions of it become uninhabitable for the organism being considered. Building canals or logging strips of forest are examples of activities that fragment habitats.
  - - - Ex. A plant(primary producer) is attacked by a herbivore(primary consumer)
      - Functional Response
        
        In predator-prey relationships, functional response refers to the predator's feeding rate and it's handling time.
      - Prey-dependent
        
        The predator's response is dependent on prey density.
      - Zero Growth Population
        
        The line that indicates the size of predator and prey populations that are stable.
      - Paradox of Enrichment
        
        The reduction or loss of a population habitat as a result of the habitat being altered to benefit the population.
      - Maximum Sustained Yield
        
        Harvesting enough just of a species to keep the population density at that point so the species would be stable.
      - Fixed Effort Harvesting
        
        The population harvest is determined by the amount of effort.
      - Fixed Quota Harvesting
        
        Fisherman or hunters are allowed to harvest a particular amount .
- - - - Ecology
        
        The study of organisms in relationship to all aspects of their surrondings.
      - Community
        
        All the populations of a region.
      - Population
        
        All the individuals of a species that live in a particular area the same time and can interact with each other.
      - Ecosystem
        
        The set of physical nonliving environmental factors of a region, plus the communities of organisms of that region.
  - - - Habitat
        
        The set of conditions in which an organism completes it's life cycle.
      - Only portions of the plant are migratory, such asthe spores, pollen, fruits, seeds, and vegetative propagules.
      - Operational Habitat
        
        Those aspects of a habitat that definitely affect the organism being considered.
      - 2 Types of Habitat Components:
        
        Abiotic
        
        Biotic
  - - - Physiognomic Structure
        
        The physical size and shape of the organisms and their distribution in relation to each other and to the physical environment.
      - Species Composistion
      - Temporal Structure
      - Trophic Levels