PHS PHYSICS 2 2018 - ATOMIC PHYSICS

RADIOACTIVITY

THE NUCLEAR ATOM

DETECTION OF RADIOACTIVITY

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE THREE KINDS OF EMISSION

RADIOACTIVE DECAY

HALF-LIFE

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

There is a small amount of radiation around us all the time because of radioactive materials in the environment. This is called background radiation. It mainly comes from natural sources such as soil, rocks (radon-222 gas), air, building materials, food and drink, even in space.

Radioactive emissions occur randomly over space and time


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The Geiger-Müller tube detects alpha, beta and gamma radiation. The 'window' at the end is thin enough for alpha particles to pass through. If an alpha particles enters the tube, it ionizes the gas inside. This sets off a high-voltage spark across the gas and a pulse of current in the circuit. A beta particle or burst of gamma radiation has the same effect.


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The Cloud chamber is useful for studying alpha particles because it makes their tracks visible. The chamber has cold alcohol vapour in the air inside it. The alpha particles make the vapour condense, so you see a trail of tiny droplets where each particle passes through. At one time, cloud chambers were widely used in nuclear research, but they have since been replaced by other devices.


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Alpha Particles


  • each particle has 2 protons and 2 neutrons
  • electrical charge is +2
  • high mass compared to Beta particle (4)


  • not very penetrating - can be stopped by a thick sheet of paper, skin or a few centimetres of hair


  • ionizing ability is strong


  • deflected by electric and magnetic fields

Beta Particles


  • each particle is an electron (nucleus decay). Neutron decays into a proton and electron. An electron is shot out from the nucleus and new element is formed.
  • electrical charge is -1
  • low mass (1/1800)


  • penetrating - stopped by a few millimetres of aluminium or other metal


  • ionizing ability is weak


  • deflected by electric and magnetic fields - much lighter and negative therefore deflected more and in opposite direction to alpha

Gamma Rays


  • electromagnetic waves (similar to x-rays)
  • electrical charge is 0
  • has no mass


  • very penetrating - never completely stopped, though lead and thick concrete will reduce intensity


  • ionizing ability is very weak


  • not deflected by electric or magnetic fields because there is no charge

As radioactive materials can force electrons out of atoms and turn them into ions, they need to be stored in special lead containers. They are handled with much care and special clothing as they can damage the DNA of cells.

The spontaneous transformation of an unstable atomic nucleus into a lighter one, in which radiation is released in the form of alpha particles, beta particles or gamma rays,

The time taken for the radioactivity of a specific isotope to be halved is the half life


  • every isotope has its own specific half life
  • a sample of a radioactive material contains billions of atoms
  • it is a completely random and unpredictable event for a specific atom of that isotope to decay

Alpha


  • Uranium 238 decays to Thorium 234 plus He atom

Loss of alpha particle leaves nucleus with 2 less protons and neutrons therefore a new element is formed.


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NUCLEUS

ISOTOPES

Beta


  • Radium 228 decays to Actinium 228 plus beta particles



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if an isotope is unstable because it has too many neutrons, one can turn into a proton and electron. The electron shoots out of the nucleus with high energy and the extra proton remains in the nucleus

Gamma


with some isotopes, the emission of an alpha or beta particle from a nucleus leaves the protons and neutrons in an 'excited' arrangement. As the protons and neutrons rearrange to become more stable, they lose energy. This is emitted as a burst of gamma radiation.


  • gamma emission by itself causes no change in mass number or atomic number.

half life graph

The nucleus contains protons which have a positive charge, and neutrons which are the same mass as protons but have no charge.

The atomic (proton) number Z, describes the number of protons in an atom


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The mass (nucleon) number A, symbolises the number of protons and neutrons in an atom

A nuclide is a distinct type of atom or nucleus characterised by a specific number of protons and neutrons

Alpha Decay


thorium- 230


IMG_9739


Atomic mass decreases by 4 and atomic number decreases by 2, due to He 4, 2

Beta Decay


Thallium-206


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Atomic mass stays the same but atomic number increases by 1 as a neutron turns into a proton plus 1 electron.

An isotope is a form of a chemical element whose atomic nucleus contains a specific number of neutrons, in addition to the number of protons that uniquely defines the element.

For elements with atomic numbers up to around 20, isotopes are stable when the neutron/proton (N/P) ratio is equal to 1.


As the nucleus increases in size, more neutrons are required to stabilise the large repulsive forces between protons. Therefore the band of stability increased to N/P = 1.4 to 1.5.


There are no stable isotopes for elements greater than element 83.