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T1 Final Exam Study Guide (Ten Themes of Biology (Adaptation and Evolution…
T1 Final Exam Study Guide
Graphing
Rules for Graphing
Determine what kind of graph
Bar graph
if one of the variables is nominal (has words as values)
Line graph
if both variables are numeric and the values aren't repeated or represent averages
Scatter plot
- both variables are numeric and there are a lot of values, some that repeat.
Identify IV and DV
IV gets manipulated to see how the DV changes - Goes on x axis
DV is the variable that we seek to explain its behavior (responding variable) - goes on y axis
Properly label axis
Both the name of the variable and the unit of measurement label the appropirate axes (IV - X; DV- Y)
Scale properly
Look at the range of data for each variable. Have the scale cover a slightly larger range, make sure that all divisions on the scale are equal to each other
Title graph properly
Title is alway 'DV by IV.'
Plot correctly
Follow the scales on each axis to find the x, y coordinate and place dot or top of bar.
Central Tendency
- describes the 'average' or central value of a set of numbers/ collected data on the value of particular variable
Mean
= the sum of all the numbers in a set divided by the number of numbers in the set. If numbers are distributed evenly then it can be a good average, but if one outlier inflates or decreases the mean then other types of averages should be used
Mode
- the number in a set that repeats most often
Median
- put numbers in a set in order and pick the middle value (odd # of numbers), or average the two middle number (even # of numbers).
The best way to describe the central tendency of a data set depends on the presence of outliers (median is best) or if there an extreme number of repeated values (mode is best)
Metric System
Derived unit
- all other measures in SI (metric system) are combinations of the Basic units
Area
is length (distance) * width (distance) or sq.m
Density
is mass in a volume - g/cm^3
volume
- is length
width
height or m^3
Prefixes
modify the size of any unit in the SI system by a power of 10
Deka
(D)- unit x 10 the size of the base
Base
- unit that has no prefix - x 1 the size of the base
Hecto
(H) - unit x 100 the size of the base
deci
(d) - unit x 1/10 the size of the base
Kilo
(K) - unit x 1000 the size of the base
centi
(c) - unit x 1/100 the size of the base
mili
(m) - unit x 1/1000 the size of the base
Metric Conversions
convert one unit into another unit by multiplying by the
conversion factor
- 2.4 kg = ? mg. There are 1,000,000 mg in a kg, so multiply by 1,000,000 or 2.4 kg is equal to 2,400,000 mg.
Use the
ladder method:
KHDBdcm. 2.4 kg = ? mg. You start at the K and count to the m, that's six to the right; so now move the decimal point six places to the right; you get 2,400,000 mg.
Base Units
temperature -
kelvin
- k - (273 + C)
number of particles in a substance -
mole
- M - (6.02 * 10^23)
mass -
kilograms
- kg
Electric Current -
Ampere
- A
time -
seconds
Luminous intensity -
candela
- Cd
distance -
meters
- m -
Characteristics of living organisms
Growth and Development
getting larger and more organized depends on having more anabolism than catabolism
Metabolism
- transformation of energy and materials through chemical reactions.
anabolism
transforming smaller molecules into larger molecules - needs energy
catabolism
- transforming larger molecules into smaller molecules - usually releases energy
Adaptation
the ability to change over time in response to a changing environment. (evolution)
Response to stimuli
- in response to felt changes in the environment, living things change their behavior
Organization
- being structurally organized - at least basic unit of organization is the cell.
Homeostasis
- maintaining a stable internal environment - like body temperature is maintained in humans
Reproduction
- ability to make new organisms - way for the species to cheat death
asexual
sexual
Why is a Virus not consider to be alive
It has no metabolism
It has no cells
Doesn't react to stimuli
It doesn't grow
Ten Themes of Biology
Form and Function
how something is structured is related to what it does (e.g. bird beaks and what and how the bird eats)
Biological Systems
- collection or parts that work together to carry out a particular function
Hierarchy of the Living world
tissues make
organs make
tissues make
organ systems make
cells make
individuals make
molecules make
populations and communities make
population
- all the individuals in a particular species in an ecosystem
community
- all the individuals in particular ecosystem that interact with a particular species
atoms make
ecosystems make
ecoregions make
biosphere
Energy Use
all organisms need energy. When they stop using energy they are dead. Ultimate source of energy for most life forms is the sun.
In Ecosystems, Energy flows through Producers, then through primary consumer, then through secondary consumer then to apex predators. At each level there is only 10 % of the energy available to the next level up
Cellular Nature of Life - Organization
Cells are the fundamental unit of life
All cells come from preexisting cells
All organisms are made of one or more cells
Adaptation and Evolution
species change over time in response to changes in the environment
natural selection
driver of evolution in which those individuals in a species that are best adapted survive and reproduce more often thus causing the species to be more like them in the future.
Species
individuals who can mate with each other and produce reproductively viable offspring
sexual selection -
members have traits that make them more attractive to opposite gender, meaning that their genes are more often replicated in a population**
Genetic Drift
random happenings wipe out part of the gene pool. In future organisms take after the survivors.**
Response to the environment
- the actions of organisms have an effect on the environment and changes in the environment have an effect on organisms
Banana Slug
is a small scale example. Slug eats leaf litter and dead stuff; it's poop serves as nutrients for redwoods which is the key feature of the ecosystem
Carbon cycle
is a large scale example: producers (plants capture energy from the sun and put it into chemical bonds of sugar (components are from CO2 and H2O). Organisms eat producers and then breath out CO2, organism die and some of the carbon goes into the soil. Over millions of years the carbon turns into fossil fuels. Humans take the fossil fuels burn them releasing CO2, causing increase in atmospheric CO2, causing global warming.
Inheritance and Reproduction
Asexual reproduction
DNA is duplicated. One parent. All offspring are clones of parent. Fast and easy but leads to low rates of evolution and susceptibility to changes in the environment
Sexual Reproduction
- Two parents, each contributing half the DNA necessary for offspring. Yields diversity in offspring allowing more rapid evolution and protection against changes in the environment.
DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid
the molecule and principle of inheritances. Contains encoded information on how to build and run organisms.
Gene
- a portion of the DNA molecule that contains information for encoding a specific genetic trait.
Biology and Society
-
Bioethics
- when specific knowledge or technology from Biology is the subject of controversy because people wonder whether about the correct use of it.
example: Birth Control
example: genetic manipulation. Should one be able to predetermine genetic content of offspring or mess around mixing genes from different species.
example: stem cell - source of research material is aborted fetuses or frozen embryos
example: adult prosecution of minors, knowing that their brains aren't as effective at impulse control and reading the emotions of others.
Regulation - Homeostasis
Regulation of Blood Sugar is a negative feedback loop
Too much sugar (hyperglycemia) - Insulin released which causes cells to take in sugar from blood
Not enough sugar (hypoglycemia) - glucagon released which causes stored sugar (glycogen) to be released into the blood
Diabetes Type I is the lack of insulin. Diabetes Type II is when the insulin doesn't work because receptors are worn out.
Childbirth is a positive feedback loop
baby's head pushes on cervix, signals to the brain to release oxytocin which causes uterus to contract causing more pushing on cervix
Scientific Inquiry
- process of generating more knowledge
Scientific Method
Testing Hypothesis to generate data.
Hypothesis formation
Analysis
Scientific Question
Observation
Conclusion and communication (peer review)
Scientific funding
Scientific certainty
Theory
- an explanation that has good bit of evidence and experimentation supporting it.
Principle
- something which has been proven true over many years of scientific effort.
Hypothesis
- predicted answer to a scientific question
Types of Research
Pure Research
- research in order to explain phenomena for knowledge's sake
Applied Research
- research that uses science knowledge to find out how solve a problem.
Technology
- application of knowledge to solve a problem.
Brain
Parts of the Brain
Cerebellum
function to coordinate other brain functions, like large motor control (standing, etc)
Limbic System
emotions and long term memory
Brainstem
Functions to control automatic functions like breathing, heartrate, temperature, etc.
Cortex (cerebellum)
- higher functions.
Parietal Lobe
sensory processing and voluntary muscle control
Occipital Lobe
visual processing
Temporal Lobe
language ability and short term memory
Frontal Lobe
executive functions, thinking, personality, impulse control
How neurons work
Parts of the neuron
Dendrites
branching part of neuron, receives signals from other neurons
Cell Body
contains the nucleus and other organelles of the cell.
Axon
long stretch of wire like tissue that conducts electricity
myelin sheath
- fatty substance covering the axon that keeps the electricity within the cell.
terminal
site of connection to the dendrites of the next nerve cell
synapse
space between terminal and dendrite. Neurotransmitters pass between cells in this space.
Electrical signals are generated if nerve is stimulated, travel down axon, but do not go from nerve to nerve. Instead neurotransmitter (specific chemicals) go across the synapse either stimulating or inhibiting the next nerve.
Learning and the Brain
Intelligence is determined by the number of connections between neurons. More connections, more intelligence
The pleasure center of the brain is the source of motivation for learning
You have to practice something so that the connections between neurons get stronger, otherwise they weaken and come apart and you forget what you learn.
Limbic System (emotional center) is hooked up to formation of long term memory. You have to care about stuff to actually learn it.
Cells
Prokaryote
- single celled, no nucleus or organelles - 'before nut'
Archaea
- very few structures. Eat chemicals found in the environment. 1st to appear. Now only live in extreme environments similar to the way the earth was 3.7 billion years ago.
single celled, no nucleus, some have cell walls, some don't, very disorganized, eat chemicals
Bacteria
- more organized. Most successful type of life (55% of all living biomass). First to eat 'food - proteins, sugar, fat)
single celled, no nucleus, more organization/structures, some have cell walls, some don't, some make own food (photosynthesis), some have to eat for energy.
Eukaryote
- single cell and multicelled, have a nucleus and organelles - highly organized - 'true nut'
Fungi
- mostly multicelled, some single cell, all have nucleus and organelles, all have cell wall, they have to eat.
Plants
- all multicelled, all have nucleus and organelles, all have cell wall, can make their own food
Protista
- single celled, have nucleus and organelles, some make own food, some eat, some have cell walls, some don't.
Animals
all multicelled, all have nucleus and organelles, none have cell wall, have to eat.
Multicellularity
only possible in cells that have organelles. These cells can have different configurations of organelles allowing them to specialize to different things.
example: muscle cell, all cytoskeleton and mitochondria - in order to do nothing but contract.
example: liver cell, all endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria- in order to do nothing but make chemicals
example: red blood cell, only contains hemoglobin for absorbing and releasing oxygen from the lungs.
Organelles
- membrane structure with a particular function
Cytoskeleton Region
Microfilament
Microtuble
Motor Protein
Centriole
Nucleus Region
Nuclear membrane
chromatin
chromosomes
nucleolus
Membrane Region
Cell Wall
Cell Membrane
Cytoplasm Region
endoplasmic reticulum
vacuole
lysosome
ribosome
golgi bodies
mitochondria
chloroplast
Why are cells so small
Cells depend on
diffusion
to obtain nutrients from the outside and to get wastes out.
Surface Area to volume ratio
the higher the SA/V ratio the more efficient diffusion. All things equal, smaller shapes have higher SA/V ratio and better diffusion
Definition of diffusion
- the movement of particles from where they are highly concentrated to where they are less concentrated until there is an equal distribution
Solvent
- a substance that dissolve another substance spreading the particle out until they are evenly distributed
Solute
a substance that is dissolved by a solvent to produce a solution
Solution
- a fluid mixture made up of different particles where they are evenly distributed.
If a cell is too big, not enough substances can get in or out of the cell to support life.