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Reasons for gender differences (Women and the New Age (Bruce (Women's…
Reasons for gender differences
Risk, socialisation and roles
Miller and Hoffman
1) gender differences in risk-taking
men- take the risk of not being religious
women- scared to be condemned to hell
2) women socialised to be more passive, obedient and caring
qualities valued by most religions
3) women's gender roles
women work part-time
more flexible = time to participate in religious activities
Davie
women closer to birth and death
bringing them closer to 'ultimate question'
men- associate God with power & control
women- associate God with love & forgiveness
Women compensators and sects
Bruce (1996)
Estimates that there are 2x ↑ women than men involved in sects
--> religious market theorists, Stark & Bainbridge (1985): people may participate in sects because they offer compensators for organismic, ethical and social deprivation
Ethical Deprivation
women tend to be more morally conservative. More likely to regard the world as being in moral decline and attracted to sects
Social Deprivation
Sects attract poorer groups and women are more likely to be poor
Organismic Deprivation
stems from mental health problems. Women more likely to suffer ill health
Forms of deprivation = ↑ women & explains ↑ level of sect membership
Women and the New Age
Heelas :high_heel: and Woodhead
80% of participants in holistic milieu in Kendal were female.
Bruce
Women's experience of child-rearing makes them less aggressive, more cooperative and caring.
Where men wish to achieve, men wish to feel
Women are attracted to New Age as it emphasises importance of being 'authentic' rather than just acting out roles.
Individual sphere
Women in paid work experience role conflict, between :
Traditional expressive feminine role in private sphere of family
Masculinised instrumental role in public sphere of work.
Woodhead
For these women, New Age beliefs are attractive as they appeal to 3rd sphere - individual sphere.
This sphere concerns about individual autonomy and personal growth.
Brown
New Age 'self' religions attract women as they appeal to women's wish to autonomy.
However
Women may be attracted to fundamentalism due to certainties of traditional gender roles that is prescribed to us.
Bruce
Class differences
New Age beliefs and practices tend to appeal to middle-class women.
Working-class women are more attracted to ideas that give them passive roles
Such as : belief in all-powerful God, fatalistic ideas.
This is also seen in education.
Middle-class believes in ability of individuals control their destiny.
Working-class have a more fatalistic attitude
Pentecostal gender paradox
Estimated 13%of continents population are now Pentecostal churches in Latin America
Regarded as a patriarchal form of Religion
Men - heads of the household and as heads of the church (clergy are males)
However, Pentecostalism has proved attraction to Women
Martin (2000) - 'Pentecostal Gender Paradox'
Brusco's (1995; 2012) - In Columbia, Pentecostalism demands that its followers adopt an ascetic lifestyle
This resembles the personal discipline of the 16th century Calvinists
Pentecostalism insists on a traditional gender division of labour that requires men to provide for their family
Men often spend 20-40% of the households income on alcohol, as well as further spending on tobacco, gambling and prostitutes.
Pentecostal men pressured by their pastor and church community to change their ways, act responsibly and redirect their income back into the household
this raises the standard of living of women and children
Pentecostalism not offering Western-style women's liberation
men retain their headship role in the family and church
Brusco - Latin American women can use pentecostalism as a means of improving their position
Despite the patriarchy, the critique of sexual irresponsibility and wastefulness of machismo culture makes it popular with women
Drogus (1994) - Church magazines and educational materials often encourage more equal relations with marriage rather than men having authority over women
Paid Work
Bruce
Womens religiosity is a result of their lower levels of involvement in paid work
Secularisation driven religion out of male-dominated public sphere of work and into the private sphere of family life
As it becomes more privatised, naturally, mens religiosity decreases and womens increases
Despite the increase of women in paid labour since the 1960s religion is still more attractive to them for two reasons argues Brown.
Mens withdrawal means churches have become feminised which attracts women because it specifically emphasises their concerns.
Religion has a strong affinity with values such as caring for others; women continue to have a primary role of caring for others so it is appealing
Recent trends
women more likely to be religious than men
decline in religious participation
movement of women into paid work
rejection of gender roles
women now attracted to New Age beliefs & practices