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Psychology (Biological approach (Localization (Hemispheric lateralization-…

- - - - Neural transmisson- the way the signal is transmitted down the neuron to the next synapse
      - Neuron- the way the brain can transmit activation
        
        Billions of neurons in the human brain
      - Synapse- the small fluid-filled gap between neurons which is essential for transmission of the nerve signals
      - Synaptic transmission- the process of signal from neuron to neuron
    - - Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)- a still picture of the brain which can inform on the structure
        
        Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)- a brain imaging technique involving detection of differences in magnetization between poor or rich oxygenated blood flow
      - Electroencephalography (EEG)- a method of measuring brain activity using electrodes attached to the scalp
      - Computerized axial tomography (CAT)- a brain imaging technique which gives a still picture of the brain using X-rays
      - Positron emission tomography (PET)- a brain imaging method that gives a moving picture of brain activity.
  - - - Left hemisphere: language
      - Right hemisphere: visuospatial processing and emotion/face recognition
    - - Broca's area
        frontal lobe, dominant hemisphere
        speech production
        
        Named after Paul Broca
      - Wernicke's area
        where the temporal and parietal lobes meet
        understanding language and speech
  - - - (full)recovery is possible following trauma to the brain
    - - Perseverance is the most important, brain has to exercise surrounding neurons to inscrease the chances of neuroplasticity
      - Age. The older a person is the less chance there is of recovery of function.
      - Gender. Women seem to recover better than men.
  - - - circulate in the synaptic fluid (between neurons) and affect the activation of neurons
        
        'lock and key' matching process triggers a specific area of the cell membrane in the receptor to open up
    - - regulatory role = implicated in many types of behaviour
      - involved in emotion, motor, cognitive and basic autonomic behaviour
      - known for its link to happiness
    - - high levels of dopamine might be linked to schizophrenia
  - - - Glands
        
        Pituitary gland
        'master gland'
        found within the brain
        monitors hormone levels and facilitates secretion
        
        Oxytocin
        
        reproductive and maternal behaviour
        
        nurturing, caring, feeding etc
        
        intensifies contractions (aiding the speed of delivery in labour and increases milk production in new mothers
        
        a hormone which is implicated in maternal behaviours and attachment formation
        
        The adrenal glands
        on top of kidneys
        
        Adrenaline
        
        fight-or-flight response
        
        Thyroid gland
        in the throat
      - Testosterone
        
        an androgen: male hormone (not exclusively)
        
        linked to aggression
  - - - released through bodily fluids (like sweat or urine)
      - for non-human animals they are a method of communication
      - implicated in attraction
      - affect learning and menstrual synchrony
  - - - Genes can affect testosterone levels and the brain physiology of an individual in the extent to which receptors are available to process the testosterone in the neurons.
        
        Frontal lobe exerts control= low control element leads to aggression
        
        Frontal lobe physiology can be genetically determined
      - MAOA gene
    - - affected by their environment
        
        The phenotype (environment+genetic code) is the result of the individual's interaction with their environment and is what we observe in behaviour research
  - - - Problem with deciding the levels of suffering: How do we know what is low/high suffering for an animal?
    - - Extrapolation to humans
      - Reducing the number of experiments means greater control over the conditions used
        
        The controlled environment becomes less generalizable to real-world functioning
    - - 3 Rs: Replacement, refinement, reduction. Help to regulate the ethics of it.
- - - - A small amount of information that is paid attention to passes to short-term memory (STM).
        
        further processing (the rest is lost)
        
        processed information transfers to long-term memory (LTM) for permanent storage
    - - not under cognitive control, automatic response
      - separate sensory stores for different sensory inputs, each one has a large capacity but limited duration
        
        the echoic store (auditory information) :
        
        limited duration of 2 seconds (Treisman 1964)
        
        the iconic store (visual information)
        
        Walsh & Thompson (1978) found that the average duration is 500 milliseconds
        
        the haptic store (tactile information)
        
        the gustatory store (taste information) :
        
        the olfactory store (smell information)
        
        Crowder (1993) found evidence to support the idea of sensory information being encoded into different sensory stores
      - Sperling (1960) found that it has a large capacity
      - limited, dependent on age (Walsh & Thompson 1978)
    - - information that is stored longer than 30 seconds
      - different possible types of LTM= involve different brain areas
        
        mainly semantic (what smth means) (Baddeley 1966)
        
        episodic (when smth was learned)
        
        procedural (how to do smth)
      - not of equal strength (stronger memories etc)
      - not passive; they might change or merge over time with other LTMs
        
        memories might be inaccurate
      - potential capacity: unlimited (Anokhin 1973) (losses only occur due to decay or interference)
        
        survival value as animals seem to have enlarged memory capacity as well (Fagot & Cook 1996) :
      - memory for faces :smiley: is long-lasting (Bahrick et al. 1975)
      - Episodic LTM/memories (EM)
        
        first suggested by Endel Tulving (1972)! :star:
        
        gives individuals and autobiographical record of personal experiences :silhouette:
        
        based on emotional context :smiley:
      - semantic LTM/memory
        
        contains all learned knowledge (facts, concepts etc)
        
        strength is associated with the degree of processing occuring during coding
      - Procedural LTM
        
        permits individuals to perform learned tasks with little conscious thought
        
        demonstrates how procedural and semantic memories work together
    - - an active (changing) memory system= contains information currently being thought about
      - raw information is encoded visually, acoustically, semantically (through meaning)
        
        semantic coding in STM (Baddeley 1966)
        
        mainly acoustic (Baddeley 1966)
      - limited capacity: 5-9 items can be held (Miller 1956)
        
        increased by chunking- method of increasing STM capacity by grouping information into larger units
        
        example: 12 letters FMLSOSDABFBI can be grouped into 4 chunks FML/SOS/DAB/FBI
        
        duration: (20-) 30 sec (Peterson & Peterson 1959) :silhouettes:
  - - - replacing the single STM store of the MSM with multi-component working memory (WM)
        
        the central executive (CE) oversees and coordinates the components of working memory, acts as a filter, processes info in all sensory forms, directs information to the model's slave system and collects responses, has limited capacity
        
        the visuospatial sketchpad (VSS) component of the WMM that deals with visual information and the physical relationship of items to each other (what items are and where are they located), handles non-phonological information
        
        helps individuals to navigate their environment
        
        visual cache (VC) stores visual info about form and colour (Logic 1995)
        
        inner scribe (IS) handles spatial relationships and rehearses and transfers information in the VC to the CE (Logic 1995)
        
        the phonological loop (PL) component of the WMM that deals with auditory information and the order of the information, limited capacity
        
        the primary acoustic store (PAS) aka the inner ear stores words that have recently been heard
        
        the articulatory process (AP) aka the inner voice keeps information in the PL through sub-vocal repetition of information and is linked to speech production
        
        case study of SC suggested that PL is a separate system (Trojani & Grossi 1995) :silhouettes:
        
        strongly associated with the evolution of human vocal language, grammar and expressing meaning
        
        the episodic buffer (EB) temporary store of integrated information from the CE, PL, VSS and LTM