intoduction to policing
WEEK1:HISTORY & INTRO
HISTORY OF POLICING
SIR ROBERT PEELS NINE PRINCIPLES OF POLICING
- police exist to prevent crime and disorder.
- police perform their duties dependent upon public approval.
- Police must secure the willing co-operation of the public in voluntary observance of the law.
- The cooperation of the public diminishes, with the use of physical force.
- impartial service to the law + be friendly
- Police use physical force to the extent necessary
- police are the public and the public are the police.
- Police should always direct their action strictly towards their functions and never appear to usurp the powers of the judiciary
- The test of police efficiency is the absence of crime and disorder
police
gate keepers to cjs
first centrally controlled police , paris 1667
1200 the watch
1100 frankenpledge
constables, watchmen, militia
1829 new police robert peel
uniform
hiearchy
central control
australian
agressive colonial
180 taz first police in australia
week 2: police organisation
structure
bailey 1990
country
number of commands
centralization
single
france
central
multi
uk
italy
aust
us
decentral
us
nsw
queensland
multi coordination
coordinated
uncordinated
alocated area
overlap
factors
tradition
regime
violence
corporate strategy
seven factors
Sources of legitimacy/authority
Definition of the police function/role
Departmental organisational design
Police relationships with external environment
Marketing and managing demand for service
Operational activities, programs, and tactics to achieve operational success
Measures of operational success or failure
ERAS
community/pop
reform
political
uncertainty
police behaviour 1968 James Wilson
police function
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Law enforcement: Traditional responses to law violation i.e. arrest
Order maintenance: Informal, discretionary responses to situations that might not be law violation
Service: Assisting community and motorists, providing information
police behavior
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Watchman
Legalistic
Service
layed back
strict
coop
week 3: plural policing
crime prevention- law enforcement
not just police
Public & private security services
Specialist anti-crime agencies
Anti-corruption agencies
Coordination & facilitation agencies
Regulatory agencies
Voluntary groups
Local government
categories
Policing by government (traditional police)
Policing through government (other government funded agencies)
Policing above government (transnational policing activities)
Policing beyond government (funded/delivered privately)
Policing below government (voluntary & community-based prevention)
types
Unarmed guard
Bodyguard
Crowd controller
Loss prevention officer
Security consultant
Locksmith
case study/ Piccadilly
challenges
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-Integrity, incompetence, corruption, abuse of authority, scandals, misconduct, brutal assaults, misuse of weapons
-Scrutiny & Management of Specialist Crime Fighting Agencies, failure of the government to properly supervise and manage these agencies.
-regulatory capture, the regulatory body is taken control by the very people, business, industry, corporation it was supposed to regulate.
-Slow and protracted development of well-designed Integrity Commissions
-Anti-corruption agencies limited success in primary prevention
-Specialist crime agencies limited success in controlling drugs trade.
-voluntary groups are going rogue and breaking the law.
-failure to work together, lack of communication, inability to operate strategically together.
-self-serving, conflict theory 101, all these agencies are fighting for a limited pool of money, may seek to fulfil personal agendas rather than policing together for the good of society, may withhold information to improve the image of their agency.
-confusion, over authority, jurisdiction and how to manage data.
congress papers
traditional policing doesn't work
week 4: recruitment,management and leadership
pre requisite
Education
Psychological assessment/personality
Physical competency/skills testing
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Screening out psychopathology and other risky psychological profiles
Identifying individuals who match some ‘ideal’ profile of police
1988 and early 2000’s percent of US police agencies using psychological testing 52% to over 90% (Cochrane et al. 2003)
big 5 personality test
neurotisism
extroversion
openness
conscientiousness
agreeableness
average
low
high
high
average
management & leadership
structure
Quasi-military:
Similarity between police and military in design, structure and organisation
Uniform, carry weapons, authorised to use force
Hierarchical rank structure with clear and strict lines of reporting, decision-making and authority
leadership
transaction
transformation
Drew Best practice principle Description for improved police leadership
Commitment to increasing educational standards of police officers.
Professional development opportunities are essential to effective police leadership
Commitment to increasing the representation of female officers
Promotional systems are crucial in the establishment and maintenance of effective leadership at all rank levels.
tertiary educated officers are higher in:
intellect
-consideration towards cultural diversity
-values
-prudence
-self-control of emotions capacity to recognise the social and psychological structure of communities they police
-lower number of complaints
-higher level skills in writing reports,
-communication,
-making decisions
-engaging with the public
-more likely to use mediation and conflict resolution
-less likely to use force.
week 5:corruption & accountability
police accountability
Their conduct and use of powers;
Performance in respect of their primary duty of safeguarding safety of persons and security of property; and
Use of resources allocated to them
Prevention of crime
Enforcement of the law
Maintenance of pubic order
Public safety
Public assistance (in times of emergency)
Exercise of discretion
Public expenditure ($1.5+ billion)
Decisions and actions
Maintenance of ethical standards
why?
Police are invested with the authority to arrest
Police have the power to use force
Police have enormous discretionary authority
mechanisms for accountability
internal
Operational Performance Review
Chain of command
Policies and procedures
Internal affairs (inspection program)
Performance appraisal
Client service reports and complaints
Integrity testing
external
Parliament
Police Minister
Courts
Oversight bodies
Commissions of inquiry
Media
Academics
old accountability
Crime and safety
Crime rates
Arrest rates
Clearance rates
Response times
Integrity
Summary data on complaints and discipline
Internal operational/financial audit reports
new accountability
Crime and safety
Reduction in crime & fear
Police-community consultation/collaboration
Increasing public safety
Integrity
More comprehensive reporting of police misconduct
Diverse and sophisticated integrity management strategies
Surveys of citizens, offenders and arrestees
Early intervention systems
ethics
good and behaviour
morally good or bad
morality, is the basic human interaction of right and wrong
ethics, framework in institutions that dictates right and wrong
importance
Police actions have consequences (force, arrest, prosecution)
Police actions can damage public trust and public willingness to cooperate
Police are in positions of trust
Police are faced with temptation
police code of ethics
Statement of collective ethics
Collective ethics focus on “attitudes and conduct appropriate to the provision of services required by the social peacekeeping role”
“A code of ethics is a set of statements about appropriate and expected behaviour of members of a particular professional grou
ethical problems
discretion
due process
bribes gratuities
use of force
personal conduct
loyalty
compliance
Tone set from the top
Policies and procedures
Education, promotion, reinforcement
Internal-external scrutiny
SELF test
Scrutiny. Would your decision withstand scrutiny by the community or the service.
Ensure. Ensure compliance with your Oath of Service, Code of Conduct and service policy
Lawful. Does your decision comply with all laws, regulations and rules?
Fair. Is your decision fair to the community, your family, and colleagues?
misconduct
wood royal commision
Fitzgerald inquiry
types
Classic corruption
Bribery – opportunistic/organised
Abuse of office, process or powers
Contravention of policy or procedures
Discrimination
Dishonesty
Excessive use of force
Favouritism
Inaction – turning a blind eye
causes
Rotten apples?
Rotten barrels/orchards:
Organisational culture
Structure/opportunity/temptation
prevention
essential strategies
Internal professional standards unit
Civilian oversight agency
Complaints & disciplinary system
Complaint resolution
Integrity measurement
Entry screening
Ethics training
Supervisor accountability
Recording devices
Monitoring & regulation of police procedures
Risk assessment
advanced strategy
Covert high technology surveillance
Targeted integrity testing
Quality assurance testing
Randomised integrity testing
Drug & alcohol testing
Internal informants
Complaints profiling
Whistleblower legislation
Compulsory rotation
Inquisitorial methods
Asset & financial reviews
oversight
mechanics
Judicial review
Commissions of Inquiry
External/internal audit
agencies
Media
Ombudsman
Independent Commissions Against Corruption
Police Integrity Commission
week8: hotspot/pop/3rd party
week 6:standard and community policing models
Sherman hypothesis
more police =less crime
rapid response
directed patrol
random patrol
reactive arrests
proactive arrests
pop policing
community policing
standard policing model (one size fits all)
Increasing police numbers
Random or preventative patrol; and
Rapid response to calls for service
does not reduce crime
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Most police officers are assigned a patrol function
60% sworn police in Australia assigned to patrol
Uniformed, work shifts, patrol in marked cars
dominated by calls-for-service, reactive, incident based
Officers assigned to patrol (general duties) have two core functions:
Rapid response
Patrol
Patrol can be achieved by foot, car, specialised patrol (bicycle, boat, motorcycle)
kansas city experiment
random patrol ineffective
minneapolis hotspot experiment
directed patrols effective
newark foot patrole xperiment
increase in 1980s
increased satisfaction with police
rapid response
The shorter the police travel time From assignment to arrival at the crime scene The more likely the police will arrest offenders Before they flee
spelman and brown, 75% rapid response call outs unnecessary, 5 minute window. 29 out of 1000 rr resulted in arrests.
kansas city
achieved little in interaction
does effect public satisfaction
community policing
bailey 1994 scathing attack on police
what is it?
Rise of community policing in the 1980’s
Activities involve: foot patrol (also segues, bicycles, horses), community newsletters, education projects door-to-door visits and community satisfaction surveys.
However true community policing involves a fundamental change in organisational strategy, resulting in the co-production of priority setting and achievement of such priorities by community members and the police
increase procedural justice and police legitimacy
SKOGAN
DECENTRALISATION
problem solving
community involvement
Key partnerships with communities and civil organisations
Police work collaboratively to set priorities and develop tactics
Community-driven agenda, rather than police agenda
Unique and local responses to problems
Police transparent in approaches and in accurately report on outcomes
Emphasis on community coproduction of safety
Information sharing and collaborative partnerships (e.g. neighbourhood watch, education programs, crime prevention/target-hardening)
Relationship building via police-community advisory groups
Priorities extend to fear-producing issues, community problems, disorder
BROKEN WINDOWS THEORY
Wilson & Kelling 1982 hypothesis: incivilities lead to crime
Broken windows theory initially resulted in Zero Tolerance policing
community policing should go beyond this and encourage community involvement/informal social control
ny city
70% decrease in homocide
40% decrease in violent crime
35% drop in overall crime rate
Generally undertaken using a problem solving approach
General principles:
Crime reduction by identifying/analysing problems
Demands analysis of patterns of events to allow proactive intervention
Undertaken in collaboration with the community
SARA
Scanning, Analysis, Response, and Assessment.
Organisational restructuring
Community policing requires devolving of responsibility, decision-making & authority downwards in the organisational hierarchy
Changes to management style, organisational values, performance management systems and operational strategies
Local solutions to local problems
Empower local officers to use judgment and discretion
COPS
personal
technology
strucure
management
case study
beenleigh qld/ beat policing
little evidence of reduction crime
increased police satisfaction/ legitimacy
queensland rbt random control experiment
random group control experiment
HOTSPOT POLICING
Understanding crime patterns and crime concentration – crime analysis; crime mapping
Directing resources to the specific types, locations & methods of crime concentration
Can include the application of other policing strategies that are time, location, offender, crime-type focused
background
Kansas City Preventative Patrol Experiment: routine patrol = no effect on crime, citizen fear of crime, community attitudes towards police
Minneapolis Hot Spots Experiment: patrol resources can be more efficiently used to impact on crime by focusing on locations where crime is disproportionately concentrate
Hot spots policing resulted from advancements in criminological theory, effectiveness was empirically studied prior to implementation in police agencies – unlike other strategies like community policin
sherman
5% 0f location %100 of callouts for seriouse crime
3% of adresses 50% calls for service
crime clusters in geographic areas
application
Police resources, can be more efficiently used focusing on locations where crime is concentrate
Small places in which the occurrence of crime is so frequent that it is highly predictable
Small places include intersections, pubs, parks, malls, street segment
specific features or characteristics of the locations create & facilitate crime opportunities & offending behavior
Focusing on crime hot spots can reduce overall crime rate
police always know the ‘trouble’ spots within their beats
The strategic change in employing a hot spots approach lies with
the identification of locations using mapping technology
systematic analysis of high-crime locations and
planned & targeted interventions
Accurate identification of hot spots is crucial
possible due to advances in IT & GIS
Crime analysis, particularly spatial analysis & crime mapping, has become central to hot spots policing
Relies on the accurate identification of locations of crime concentration
Identification of hot spots involves hot spots mapping
theory
RAT
cohen and felson
motivated offender
suitable target
absence of suitable guardian
convergence in space and time
crime triangle
offender
handler
super controller
victim
place
manager
super controller
guardian
super controller
RCT
Offending as a function of opportunity, motivation & decision-making
Crime event based on purposeful decisions about costs & benefits
Offender determines that the risks (for example, being arrested) are low compared to the benefits gained from committing the crime
BECKER
ENVIRONMENTAL CRIMINOLOGY
distribution & interaction of targets & offenders
opportunities as a function of time & space, &
insight into the characteristics of places that attract & provide opportunities for rational offenders to commit crime
specific locations due to characteristics enhance the convergence
person of high criminality in high criminogenic environment will commit crime
strategies
pop
community policing
directed patrol
target known offenders
effectiveness
braga review, 20/25 studies found effective
sherman , minneapolis hotspot experiment, effective
koper 15 minutes patrol reduce crime
most effective when applied to POP
displacement?
crime method
crime type
location
POP
proactive instead of reactive
broken windows
problem?
Repeated incidents,
occurring in a community,
with related characteristics (e.g., behaviour, location, people, time)
that concern both the community and the police
define
Rather a diverse range of strategies are utilised
There are no distinct problem-oriented tactics
A guiding framework that incorporates problem-solving and provides a process for better analysis, understanding and response to crime & disorde
Extends the responsibility for crime control beyond the police
Relies on third parties to help reduce crime and disorder problems
Involves the police as problem managers
objective
Eliminate the problem
Reduce the size of the problem
Reduce the harm caused by the problem
Remove responsibility for the problem
Provide an effective police response
adoption
24 response types
57% cpted
3rd party policing
work with community, business ,schools, other government and non government
id and respond to crime
Persuade coerce third party
stand alone strategy
elements
Police identify a third party (eg. property owner) and
use some type of lever (eg. legal provision)
to coerce the third party to
bring about a change in the routine activities of the offending parties
police might partner with a third party node to coerce a third party
police might contract out the crime control responsibility.
The critical element of third party policing that sets it apart from other partnership approaches is the use of legal, criminal, civil and regulatory rules and laws
Legal, civil, or regulatory levers encourage and coerce third parties to enact some type of crime control responsibility or function
Regulatory or legal provisions provide the process through which interventions are undertaken
regulators
Third party policing has developed against the backdrop of broadening regulatory control within our society
Expansion of traditional areas falling under regulation (eg. taxation, health
New areas of regulation governing a much broader range of activities (e.g. building codes, environmental regulation, and occupational health and safety
case study
project STOP
cold and flu
police work with regulators, pharmaceuticals and business
WEEK 9: investigation
origins
detectives 1st trained in 1916 in london
need for patrol police to continue patrol
increase in tech
gather evidence for courts
neglect to investigate hidden crimes
need for specialist
intelligence led policing
effective detective
adaptation
decision making
leadership
admin skills
delegate skills
sort info
consult
awareness
handling experts
interpersonal skills
investigating competence
innovative
maintain integrity
manage resources
crime investigation
2 phases
preliminary
follow up
60-90 % of crime solved
5 steps
Arresting any suspect or suspects
Providing aid to victims in need of immediate medical attention
Securing the crime scene to prevent loss of evidence
Collecting all relevant physical evidence
Preparing a preliminary report
3 phases
Routine activities e.g. check crime scene, interviewing victims
Secondary activities e.g. canvas for witnesses, collect evidence
Tertiary activities e.g. interview suspects, check departmental records, talking to patrol officers, checking records/data, stakeouts
prioritisation of cases
Commonly accepted standards on the seriousness of crime,
Personal feelings about the case,
Amount of publicity the crime has received, and
Pressure from the public, political figures in the community, or top officials in the departments
effectiveness: clearance rates
SOP:homicide: first at scene
1 arrive safely
Arrive quickly/cautiously
do not disturb/destroy evidence/contaminate
Take care of victims
Observe/document everything – even weather, lighting, what is there, what should be there that isn’t etc
2 ensure safely
Safety of others paramount importance
Identify/diffuse dangerous situations, violence etc.
Identify hazards and neutralize
- Arrange for Medical Assistance
Preserving life, number one priority
Ensure that other responsibilities are not neglected
Record identity of medical personnel, time of arrival
Preserve crime scene, one way in and out for medical team
4 arrest suspects
- secure scene
- call for assistance
sop: detective
analyse the scene
document scene
suspects
notification
manage scene
canvas the scene
miscarriage of justice
Corruption, bribes, downgrading of charges
Loss of evidence or ‘faulty recall’
Planting of evidence
Manipulation of witnesses
Tunnel vision’
Sloppy procedures at the crime scene
Testimony from police informants
Fabricated or coerced confessions
stuff ups
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Cover up the body with a blanket
Unload or secure guns in an already secure crime scene
Let every cop working come in and look at the body
Forget to keep a log of everyone who walks into the scene
Be afraid to take charge
Forget to take pictures
week 10: procedural justice and police legitimacy
what is procedural justice
fair treatment by authority
what is police legitimacy
“Acceptance by people of the need to bring their behavior into line with the dictates of an external authority” (Tyler, 1990, p. 25
“Right to exercise power” (Tankebe, 2013, p. 103)
“When people feel that an authority is legitimate, they authorize that authority to determine what their behavior will be” (Tyler, 2005, p. 87
instrument
Controlling crime and criminal behaviour (performance)
Creating a risk of detection and sanction for law breakers (deterrence
Distribute police services across people/communities fairly (distributive justice
normative
Voice – allowing citizens to ‘have their say’
Neutrality – unbiased decision-making
Respect – treating citizens with dignity and respect
Trustworthy motives – acting in the best interests of the community
IMPORTANT
Fair treatment should be a goal in and of itself
Australia is a democratic society, we therefore expect fair treatment in our legal system
Without legitimacy police will not retain their authority and power
In democratic societies police require the consent of the public
However procedural justice and legitimacy are found to impact upon additional, important outcomes
compliance
Around 10% of people who have been issued a directive by police in Australia do not comply
Non-compliance can lead to conflict and injury
Obeying the law is of key concern to us as criminologists
co operation
Willingly assist police with enquiries
Call the police to report crime
Offer up information
organisational justice
satisfaction, trust , confidence
Satisfaction, trust (in general) and confidence have become key performance indicators for police
In Australia the “Peelian” model supports a customer service orientation
Research in the US and Australia finds procedural justice and legitimacy are key predictors of satisfaction, trust and confidence in police
case study
case study QCET
week 11: policing minorities
the difference in experience created by social factors
impact with police and minorities
Political context
Social and economic status of minorities
Government policy (e.g. Multiculturalism)
Reconciliation
Discretionary powers of police
Legal protection against police abuse
Internal organisation
Police training
Critical incidents – how to deal with
policing concentration
over
under
women and police
Historically our patriarchal legal system has limited women’s rights
1970s-1980s domestic violence went from private issue to public’s consciousness due to
Feminist lobbying and victim advocacy groups
Civil court cases found police departments liable for failure to protect victims
Research suggested arrest an effective means of deterring future abusive incidents
Legislative changes expanded the definition of domestic violence to include de facto relationships and same-sex couples and provide provisions for emergency protection orders and mandatory treatment for abusers
criticism
Police making judgements about ‘deserving victims’ & act accordingly
Police resorting to arrest only when an officer threatened
Decision to arrest was not influenced by previous calls or injuries to the victim
And...police tended to view the problem of domestic violence as purely a civil matter, rather than a police concern
abolish barriers
Height and weight restrictions
Marriage prohibitions
Female quotas
Military-style obstacle courses abandoned
indigenous
mental health
IMPROVE
Establishment of the position of Cross-cultural liaison officer in all Regions
Formation of local area consultative groups
Introduction of a strategy to increase the number of female police recruits and recruits from ‘culturally specific’ communities
Establishment of the Police Ethnic Advisory Committee
Ongoing support for the Police Liaison Officers (PLO) program
Introduction of School Liaison Officers in some schools
Provision of cross cultural awareness training to all QPS members including police recruits
MHIP
QPS, QHS, QAS
WEEK 12: future of policing
innovations
Strategic
Programmatic
Technological
Administrative
change in overall philosophy
hotspot
pop
community
third party
change in method
drug education
school programe
driver education
use of capital
body camera
crime mapping
non lethal weapons
dna
communication/networks
approach to conducting operations and accountability for performance
leadership
compstate
recruitment
early warning system