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intoduction to policing (WEEK 9: investigation (effective detective…

- - - - uniform
      - hiearchy
      - central control
    - - agressive colonial
      - 180 taz first police in australia
- - - - number of commands
        
        single
        
        france
        
        italy
        
        multi
        
        uk
        
        aust
        
        us
      - centralization
        
        central
        
        nsw
        
        queensland
        
        decentral
        
        us
      - multi coordination
        
        coordinated
        
        alocated area
        
        uncordinated
        
        overlap
    - - tradition
      - regime
      - violence
  - - - Sources of legitimacy/authority
      - Definition of the police function/role
      - Departmental organisational design
      - Police relationships with external environment
      - Marketing and managing demand for service
      - Operational activities, programs, and tactics to achieve operational success
      - Measures of operational success or failure
  - - - Law enforcement: Traditional responses to law violation i.e. arrest
        
        Order maintenance: Informal, discretionary responses to situations that might not be law violation
        
        Service: Assisting community and motorists, providing information
    - - Watchman
        
        layed back
        
        Legalistic
        
        strict
        
        Service
        
        coop
- - - - Public & private security services
        
        types
        
        Unarmed guard
        
        Bodyguard
        
        Crowd controller
        
        Loss prevention officer
        
        Security consultant
        
        Locksmith
      - Specialist anti-crime agencies
      - Anti-corruption agencies
      - Coordination & facilitation agencies
      - Regulatory agencies
      - Voluntary groups
      - Local government
    - - Policing by government (traditional police)
      - Policing through government (other government funded agencies)
      - Policing above government (transnational policing activities)
      - Policing beyond government (funded/delivered privately)
      - Policing below government (voluntary & community-based prevention)
  - - - -Integrity, incompetence, corruption, abuse of authority, scandals, misconduct, brutal assaults, misuse of weapons
      - -Scrutiny & Management of Specialist Crime Fighting Agencies, failure of the government to properly supervise and manage these agencies.
      - -regulatory capture, the regulatory body is taken control by the very people, business, industry, corporation it was supposed to regulate.
      - -Slow and protracted development of well-designed Integrity Commissions
      - -Anti-corruption agencies limited success in primary prevention
      - -Specialist crime agencies limited success in controlling drugs trade.
      - -voluntary groups are going rogue and breaking the law.
      - -failure to work together, lack of communication, inability to operate strategically together.
      - -self-serving, conflict theory 101, all these agencies are fighting for a limited pool of money, may seek to fulfil personal agendas rather than policing together for the good of society, may withhold information to improve the image of their agency.
      - -confusion, over authority, jurisdiction and how to manage data.
- - - - tertiary educated officers are higher in:
        
        intellect
        
        -consideration towards cultural diversity
        
        -values
        
        -prudence
        
        -self-control of emotions capacity to recognise the social and psychological structure of communities they police
        
        -lower number of complaints
        
        -higher level skills in writing reports,
        
        -communication,
        
        -making decisions
        
        -engaging with the public
        
        -more likely to use mediation and conflict resolution
        
        -less likely to use force.
    - - Screening out psychopathology and other risky psychological profiles
        
        big 5 personality test
        
        neurotisism
        
        low
        
        extroversion
        
        high
        
        openness
        
        average
        
        conscientiousness
        
        high
        
        agreeableness
        
        average
        
        Identifying individuals who match some ‘ideal’ profile of police
        
        1988 and early 2000’s percent of US police agencies using psychological testing 52% to over 90% (Cochrane et al. 2003)
  - - - Quasi-military:
      - Similarity between police and military in design, structure and organisation
      - Uniform, carry weapons, authorised to use force
      - Hierarchical rank structure with clear and strict lines of reporting, decision-making and authority
    - - transaction
      - transformation
      - Drew Best practice principle Description for improved police leadership
        
        Commitment to increasing educational standards of police officers.
        
        Professional development opportunities are essential to effective police leadership
        
        Commitment to increasing the representation of female officers
        
        Promotional systems are crucial in the establishment and maintenance of effective leadership at all rank levels.
- - - - Exercise of discretion
      - Decisions and actions
      - Maintenance of ethical standards
    - - Prevention of crime
      - Enforcement of the law
      - Maintenance of pubic order
      - Public safety
      - Public assistance (in times of emergency)
    - - Public expenditure ($1.5+ billion)
    - - Police are invested with the authority to arrest
      - Police have the power to use force
      - Police have enormous discretionary authority
    - - internal
        
        Operational Performance Review
        
        Chain of command
        
        Policies and procedures
        
        Internal affairs (inspection program)
        
        Performance appraisal
        
        Client service reports and complaints
        
        Integrity testing
      - external
        
        Parliament
        
        Police Minister
        
        Courts
        
        Oversight bodies
        
        Commissions of inquiry
        
        Media
        
        Academics
    - - Crime and safety
        
        Crime rates
        
        Arrest rates
        
        Clearance rates
        
        Response times
      - Integrity
        
        Summary data on complaints and discipline
        
        Internal operational/financial audit reports
      - new accountability
        
        Crime and safety
        
        Reduction in crime & fear
        
        Police-community consultation/collaboration
        
        Increasing public safety
        
        Integrity
        
        More comprehensive reporting of police misconduct
        
        Diverse and sophisticated integrity management strategies
        
        Surveys of citizens, offenders and arrestees
        
        Early intervention systems
  - - - Police actions have consequences (force, arrest, prosecution)
      - Police actions can damage public trust and public willingness to cooperate
      - Police are in positions of trust
      - Police are faced with temptation
    - - Statement of collective ethics
      - Collective ethics focus on “attitudes and conduct appropriate to the provision of services required by the social peacekeeping role”
      - “A code of ethics is a set of statements about appropriate and expected behaviour of members of a particular professional grou
    - - discretion
      - due process
      - bribes gratuities
      - use of force
      - personal conduct
      - loyalty
    - - Tone set from the top
      - Policies and procedures
      - Education, promotion, reinforcement
      - Internal-external scrutiny
      - SELF test
        
        Scrutiny. Would your decision withstand scrutiny by the community or the service.
        
        Ensure. Ensure compliance with your Oath of Service, Code of Conduct and service policy
        
        Lawful. Does your decision comply with all laws, regulations and rules?
        
        Fair. Is your decision fair to the community, your family, and colleagues?
  - - - Classic corruption
      - Bribery – opportunistic/organised
      - Abuse of office, process or powers
      - Contravention of policy or procedures
      - Discrimination
      - Dishonesty
      - Excessive use of force
      - Favouritism
      - Inaction – turning a blind eye
    - - Rotten apples?
      - Rotten barrels/orchards:
      - Organisational culture
      - Structure/opportunity/temptation
    - - essential strategies
        
        Internal professional standards unit
        
        Civilian oversight agency
        
        Complaints & disciplinary system
        
        Complaint resolution
        
        Integrity measurement
        
        Entry screening
        
        Ethics training
        
        Supervisor accountability
        
        Recording devices
        
        Monitoring & regulation of police procedures
        
        Risk assessment
      - advanced strategy
        
        Covert high technology surveillance
        
        Targeted integrity testing
        
        Quality assurance testing
        
        Randomised integrity testing
        
        Drug & alcohol testing
        
        Internal informants
        
        Complaints profiling
        
        Whistleblower legislation
        
        Compulsory rotation
        
        Inquisitorial methods
        
        Asset & financial reviews
  - - - Judicial review
      - Commissions of Inquiry
      - External/internal audit
      - agencies
        
        Ombudsman
        
        Independent Commissions Against Corruption
        
        Police Integrity Commission
      - Media
- - - - Kansas City Preventative Patrol Experiment: routine patrol = no effect on crime, citizen fear of crime, community attitudes towards police
      - Minneapolis Hot Spots Experiment: patrol resources can be more efficiently used to impact on crime by focusing on locations where crime is disproportionately concentrate
        
        sherman
        
        5% 0f location %100 of callouts for seriouse crime
        
        3% of adresses 50% calls for service
        
        crime clusters in geographic areas
      - Hot spots policing resulted from advancements in criminological theory, effectiveness was empirically studied prior to implementation in police agencies – unlike other strategies like community policin
    - - Police resources, can be more efficiently used focusing on locations where crime is concentrate
      - Small places in which the occurrence of crime is so frequent that it is highly predictable
      - Small places include intersections, pubs, parks, malls, street segment
      - specific features or characteristics of the locations create & facilitate crime opportunities & offending behavior
      - Focusing on crime hot spots can reduce overall crime rate
      - police always know the ‘trouble’ spots within their beats
      - The strategic change in employing a hot spots approach lies with
        
        the identification of locations using mapping technology
        
        systematic analysis of high-crime locations and
        
        planned & targeted interventions
        
        Accurate identification of hot spots is crucial
      - possible due to advances in IT & GIS
      - Crime analysis, particularly spatial analysis & crime mapping, has become central to hot spots policing
      - Relies on the accurate identification of locations of crime concentration
      - Identification of hot spots involves hot spots mapping
    - - RAT
        
        cohen and felson
        
        motivated offender
        
        suitable target
        
        absence of suitable guardian
        
        convergence in space and time
        
        crime triangle
        
        offender
        
        handler
        
        super controller
        
        victim
        
        guardian
        
        super controller
        
        place
        
        manager
        
        super controller
      - RCT
        
        Offending as a function of opportunity, motivation & decision-making
        
        Crime event based on purposeful decisions about costs & benefits
        
        Offender determines that the risks (for example, being arrested) are low compared to the benefits gained from committing the crime
        
        BECKER
      - ENVIRONMENTAL CRIMINOLOGY
        
        distribution & interaction of targets & offenders
        
        opportunities as a function of time & space, &
        
        insight into the characteristics of places that attract & provide opportunities for rational offenders to commit crime
        
        specific locations due to characteristics enhance the convergence
        
        person of high criminality in high criminogenic environment will commit crime
        
        broken windows
    - - pop
      - community policing
      - directed patrol
      - target known offenders
    - - braga review, 20/25 studies found effective
      - sherman , minneapolis hotspot experiment, effective
      - koper 15 minutes patrol reduce crime
      - most effective when applied to POP
      - displacement?
        
        crime method
        
        crime type
        
        location
  - - - Repeated incidents,
      - occurring in a community,
      - with related characteristics (e.g., behaviour, location, people, time)
      - that concern both the community and the police
    - - Rather a diverse range of strategies are utilised
      - There are no distinct problem-oriented tactics
      - A guiding framework that incorporates problem-solving and provides a process for better analysis, understanding and response to crime & disorde
      - Extends the responsibility for crime control beyond the police
      - Relies on third parties to help reduce crime and disorder problems
      - Involves the police as problem managers
    - - Eliminate the problem
      - Reduce the size of the problem
      - Reduce the harm caused by the problem
      - Remove responsibility for the problem
      - Provide an effective police response
    - - 24 response types
      - 57% cpted
  - - - Persuade coerce third party
    - - Police identify a third party (eg. property owner) and
      - use some type of lever (eg. legal provision)
      - to coerce the third party to
      - bring about a change in the routine activities of the offending parties
      - police might partner with a third party node to coerce a third party
      - police might contract out the crime control responsibility.
      - The critical element of third party policing that sets it apart from other partnership approaches is the use of legal, criminal, civil and regulatory rules and laws
      - Legal, civil, or regulatory levers encourage and coerce third parties to enact some type of crime control responsibility or function
      - Regulatory or legal provisions provide the process through which interventions are undertaken
    - - Third party policing has developed against the backdrop of broadening regulatory control within our society
      - Expansion of traditional areas falling under regulation (eg. taxation, health
      - New areas of regulation governing a much broader range of activities (e.g. building codes, environmental regulation, and occupational health and safety
    - - project STOP
      - cold and flu
      - police work with regulators, pharmaceuticals and business
- - - - does not reduce crime
    - - Most police officers are assigned a patrol function
        
        60% sworn police in Australia assigned to patrol
        
        Uniformed, work shifts, patrol in marked cars
        
        dominated by calls-for-service, reactive, incident based
        
        Officers assigned to patrol (general duties) have two core functions:
        
        Rapid response
        
        Patrol
        
        Patrol can be achieved by foot, car, specialised patrol (bicycle, boat, motorcycle)
      - kansas city experiment
        
        random patrol ineffective
        
        random group control experiment
      - minneapolis hotspot experiment
        
        directed patrols effective
      - newark foot patrole xperiment
        
        increase in 1980s
        
        increased satisfaction with police
  - - - achieved little in interaction
      - does effect public satisfaction
  - - - Rise of community policing in the 1980’s
      - Activities involve: foot patrol (also segues, bicycles, horses), community newsletters, education projects door-to-door visits and community satisfaction surveys.
      - However true community policing involves a fundamental change in organisational strategy, resulting in the co-production of priority setting and achievement of such priorities by community members and the police
      - increase procedural justice and police legitimacy
        
        queensland rbt random control experiment
    - - DECENTRALISATION
        
        Organisational restructuring
        
        Community policing requires devolving of responsibility, decision-making & authority downwards in the organisational hierarchy
        
        Changes to management style, organisational values, performance management systems and operational strategies
        
        Local solutions to local problems
        
        Empower local officers to use judgment and discretion
        
        COPS
        
        personal
        
        technology
        
        strucure
        
        management
      - problem solving
        
        Generally undertaken using a problem solving approach
        
        General principles:
        
        Crime reduction by identifying/analysing problems
        
        Demands analysis of patterns of events to allow proactive intervention
        
        Undertaken in collaboration with the community
        
        SARA
        
        Scanning, Analysis, Response, and Assessment.
      - community involvement
        
        Key partnerships with communities and civil organisations
        
        Police work collaboratively to set priorities and develop tactics
        
        Community-driven agenda, rather than police agenda
        
        Unique and local responses to problems
        
        Police transparent in approaches and in accurately report on outcomes
        
        Emphasis on community coproduction of safety
        
        Information sharing and collaborative partnerships (e.g. neighbourhood watch, education programs, crime prevention/target-hardening)
        
        Relationship building via police-community advisory groups
        
        Priorities extend to fear-producing issues, community problems, disorder
    - - Wilson & Kelling 1982 hypothesis: incivilities lead to crime
      - Broken windows theory initially resulted in Zero Tolerance policing
      - community policing should go beyond this and encourage community involvement/informal social control
      - ny city
        
        70% decrease in homocide
        
        40% decrease in violent crime
        
        35% drop in overall crime rate
    - - beenleigh qld/ beat policing
        
        little evidence of reduction crime
        
        increased police satisfaction/ legitimacy
- - - - preliminary
        
        60-90 % of crime solved
        
        5 steps
        
        Arresting any suspect or suspects
        
        Providing aid to victims in need of immediate medical attention
        
        Securing the crime scene to prevent loss of evidence
        
        Collecting all relevant physical evidence
        
        Preparing a preliminary report
      - follow up
        
        3 phases
        
        Routine activities e.g. check crime scene, interviewing victims
        
        Secondary activities e.g. canvas for witnesses, collect evidence
        
        Tertiary activities e.g. interview suspects, check departmental records, talking to patrol officers, checking records/data, stakeouts
        
        effectiveness: clearance rates
    - - Commonly accepted standards on the seriousness of crime,
      - Personal feelings about the case,
      - Amount of publicity the crime has received, and
      - Pressure from the public, political figures in the community, or top officials in the departments
  - - - Arrive quickly/cautiously
      - do not disturb/destroy evidence/contaminate
      - Take care of victims
      - Observe/document everything – even weather, lighting, what is there, what should be there that isn’t etc
    - - Safety of others paramount importance
      - Identify/diffuse dangerous situations, violence etc.
      - Identify hazards and neutralize
    - - Preserving life, number one priority
      - Ensure that other responsibilities are not neglected
      - Record identity of medical personnel, time of arrival
      - Preserve crime scene, one way in and out for medical team
  - - - Cover up the body with a blanket
      - Unload or secure guns in an already secure crime scene
      - Let every cop working come in and look at the body
      - Forget to keep a log of everyone who walks into the scene
      - Be afraid to take charge
      - Forget to take pictures
- - - - Controlling crime and criminal behaviour (performance)
      - Creating a risk of detection and sanction for law breakers (deterrence
      - Distribute police services across people/communities fairly (distributive justice
    - - Voice – allowing citizens to ‘have their say’
      - Neutrality – unbiased decision-making
      - Respect – treating citizens with dignity and respect
      - Trustworthy motives – acting in the best interests of the community
  - - - Around 10% of people who have been issued a directive by police in Australia do not comply
      - Non-compliance can lead to conflict and injury
      - Obeying the law is of key concern to us as criminologists
    - - Willingly assist police with enquiries
      - Call the police to report crime
      - Offer up information
    - - Satisfaction, trust (in general) and confidence have become key performance indicators for police
      - In Australia the “Peelian” model supports a customer service orientation
      - Research in the US and Australia finds procedural justice and legitimacy are key predictors of satisfaction, trust and confidence in police
- - - - Political context
      - Social and economic status of minorities
      - Government policy (e.g. Multiculturalism)
      - Reconciliation
      - Discretionary powers of police
      - Legal protection against police abuse
      - Internal organisation
      - Police training
      - Critical incidents – how to deal with
  - - - Police making judgements about ‘deserving victims’ & act accordingly
      - Police resorting to arrest only when an officer threatened
      - Decision to arrest was not influenced by previous calls or injuries to the victim
      - And...police tended to view the problem of domestic violence as purely a civil matter, rather than a police concern
    - - Height and weight restrictions
      - Marriage prohibitions
      - Female quotas
      - Military-style obstacle courses abandoned
- - - - change in overall philosophy
        
        hotspot
        
        pop
        
        community
        
        third party
    - - change in method
        
        drug education
        
        school programe
        
        driver education
    - - use of capital
        
        body camera
        
        crime mapping
        
        non lethal weapons
        
        dna
        
        communication/networks
    - - approach to conducting operations and accountability for performance
        
        leadership
        
        compstate
        
        recruitment
        
        early warning system